Ancient Republics of India

In the 6th century B.C., northern India had many independent states. While some were monarchies, many were republics or oligarchies – ruled not by kings but by assemblies of people or clan heads. These are known as the Republics of the Buddha’s Age because they existed during the time of the Buddha and Mahavira.

Nature of Governance

• These republics were ancient experiments in democracy, though different from modern systems.
• All had some form of elected leadership, law-making bodies, and assemblies where decisions were made by majority vote.

Forms of Republics (As per Scholars)

1. Dr. Jayaswal’s classification:

• Gana (Democracy) – All adult citizens participated.
• Kula (Aristocracy) – Only certain families held power.
• Mixed – Power shared between select families and the people.

1. Dr. Bhandarkar’s classification:

• Two types:
  • Pure Republics – Elected rule.
  • Kshatriya Aristocracies – Power restricted to Kshatriya class.
• Each could be:
  • Unitary (Nigama) – Single city republic.
  • Federal (Janapada) – Group of regions under one central rule.

Key Features of Republican Governance

• Assemblies (Santhagara): Main decision-making body.
• Voting: Open or secret ballot; decisions made by majority.
• Executive Heads: Called Raja, Rajana, or Ganapati, usually elected.
• Posts: Commander-in-Chief, Treasurer, etc., chosen by assembly.
• Some posts became hereditary, but elections still existed.

Major Republics of 6th Century B.C.

Republic	Capital	Remarks
Sakyas	Kapilavastu	Buddha’s clan; federal setup; every adult participated.
Lichchhavis	Vaishali	Most powerful; had thousands of ruling Rajans.
Mallas	Pava, Kushinara	Divided into two branches at Pava and Kushinara; Kshatriya republics.
Koliyas	Ramagrama	Fought with Sakyas over river water; mediated by Buddha.
Bhaggas	Sunsamagiri	Ruled by Aitreya Brahmanas.
Mauryas	Pipphalivana	Possibly the ancestors of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.
Kalamās	Suputa	Small republican tribe.
Videhas	Mithila	On Nepal border; rich Vedic past.
Ghvatrikas	Kollanga	Himalayan foothill state.

Most were named after ruling clans. Eventually conquered or collapsed due to internal conflicts and Magadha’s rise.

Republics During Alexander’s Invasion (4th Century B.C.)

• Greek invader Alexander fought several northwestern republics:
  • Asmakas, Malavas, Arjunayanas, Kshudrakas, Mushikas, etc.
• These republics resisted strongly, more than many monarchies.

Mauryan Period (Post-Alexander)

• Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya systematically conquered these republics to build a strong empire.
• Supported centralized monarchy for political unity.

Later Republics (Post-Maurya, c. 200 B.C.–400 A.D.)

Some republics re-emerged in western and central India:

• Malavas (eastern Rajasthan)
• Arjunayanas (near Jaipur)
• Yaudheyas (near Bahawalpur)
• Madrakas (between Ravi & Chenab)

Other minor republics:

• Sivis (near Chittor)
• Kuluta (Kullu Valley)
• Audumbara (Kangra)
• Bhadrakas (Sialkot)
• Kharaparikas, Sanakonikas, Prarjunas, Kokas, etc.

Decline and End of Republics

• The last of the republics were destroyed and subsumed by the Guptas (320–550 A.D.) under Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II.
• Reasons for decline:
  • Internal weaknesses and mutual conflicts.
  • Gupta expansion and need for political unity.

Legacy

These republics weren’t modern democracies but early models of collective rule. Their assemblies, voting systems, and elected executives show India’s long democratic tradition. Their extinction was seen as necessary for strong empire-building, especially under the Guptas.

Key Facts on Republics

Moriya (tribe)

The Moriyas was an aristocratic republic with capital at Pipphalivana. It was called Nyagrodhavana by Xuanzang. The peacock (Mora) was their totem, giving them their name. After Buddha’s death, they claimed a share of his relics from the Mallakas and enshrined the embers in a stūpa at Pipphalivana. King Ajātasattu of Magadha annexed the Moriyas after subjugating the Vajjika League. Buddhist tradition links the Moriyas as ancestors of the Maurya dynasty.

Shakya

The Shakyas were also an aristocratic republic in the Terai near the Himalayas with Kapilavastu as their capital. They had mixed Aryan and indigenous origins, practiced tree and serpent worship, and followed non-Vedic customs. Their political system was a gaṇasaṅgha with hereditary rājās and an elected mahārājā. The Buddha, born to Shakya ruler Suddhodana, was titled Śākya-muni. The Shakyas were annexed by Kosala post-Buddha, later absorbed into Magadha.

Vajji (tribe)

Vajji was also aristocratic oligarchic republic around Vesālī. It led the Vajjika League including Vaidehas, Nāyikas, and Mallakas, with only Mallakas retaining sovereignty. Conflict with Magadha under Ajātasattu led to the League’s defeat and annexation by 468 BCE, ending Vajji’s political existence.

Videha

Videha was initially a monarchy (c. 900-700 BCE) but transitioned to a gaṇasaṅgha republic under Licchavi influence around the 6th century BCE. Its capital was Mithilā, linked to King Janaka. Videha was part of the Vajjika League, dominated by Licchavi, and was annexed by Magadha under Ajātasattu by 468 BCE.

Yaudheya

Yaudheyas was a warrior republic in modern Haryana, known for resisting Kushan and Indo-Scythian invasions. They governed as a gana sangha, unlike monarchic Janapadas and their chief was called Mahasenapati. They minted coins in Brahmi script featuring Kartikeya, their chief deity. They defeated Kushans around 180 CE and later submitted to Gupta ruler Samudragupta without resistance.

Koliya

The Koliyas were an ancient Indo-Aryan aristocratic republic (gaṇasaṅgha) in northeastern South Asia, bordered by rivers Rohiṇī and Anomā, with capital Devadaha. They shared kinship with the Sakyas and belonged to the Vyagghapajja gotta. The Buddha’s mother, Māyā, was a Koliya princess. Their Assembly (a few hundred khattiya heads) elected a mahārājā and met in a santhāgāra. Post-Buddha, Koliyas lost autonomy after Kosala’s king Viḍūḍabha annexed them.

Licchavis of Vaishali

Licchavis of Vaishali was largest republican tribe organized as a gaṇasaṅgha with 7,707 hereditary kṣatriya rājās forming the Assembly. They led the Vajjika League. Their capital was Vaisālī, a Jainism center under Gaṇa Mukhya Ceṭaka. They fought Magadha in the 5th century BCE but were annexed by Ajātasattu. Licchavi survived post-Maurya, influencing Gupta lineage and forming a kingdom in Nepal.

Malla

Mallas, divided into two republican gaṇasaṅghas with capitals at Kusinārā and Pāvā, were part of the Vajjika League. They were initially non-Brahmanised but later adopted Vāseṭṭha gotra. Kusinārā was Buddha’s death place. The Mallas maintained sovereignty within the League, fought Magadha under Ajātasattu, and were eventually annexed by Magadha around 468 BCE, losing their republican status.

Malavas

Malavas, originally Malloi of Punjab during Alexander’s invasion (4th century BCE), migrated south to Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat due to Indo-Greek and Huna invasions. They issued coins inscribed “Malavanam jayah” (250 BCE–250 CE). The Malwa region and Malava era (later Vikram Samvat) are named after them. Defeated by Western Satraps, Samudragupta, and Pulakeshin II, they are linked to the Paramaras and mentioned in Mahabharata, Mahabhashya, and inscriptions.

Sixteen Mahajanapadas

Around sixth century BC, the territories of sixteen Mahajanapadas got clearly marked. These included Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji or Vriji, Malla, Chedi or Cheti, Vamsa or Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Machcha or Matsya, Surasena, Assaka or Ashmaka , Avanti, Gandhara & Kamboja. The names of at least 9 among them are given in the Vedic Literature. Panini in the 4th century BC mentions as many as 22 different Janpadas, but also mentions 3 most important viz. Magadha, Kosala and Vatsa.

Evolution of Mahajanapadas

The society in Vedic period was rural, where smallest political unit was a Vis. However, some later Vedic texts detail about the Janpadas such as Kuru, Panchala, Matysa, Kunti, Kikata, Jayminia, Kashi, Magadha, Anga, Kamboja etc. The rise of Janpadas is mainly attributed to the establishment of settled agriculture communities. The development of an agriculture based economy led to increase in crops and cattle wealth coupled with use of iron in technology. The society was now totally divided into 4 Varna. Based upon occupation, new labour class and landed classes emerged. The landed class was known as Gahapatis. The trade flourished and the towns, which were either located on trade routes such as Mathura or located, near the banks of rivers such as Magadha developed. This transition also saw an emergence of taxing, standing army, territorial powers etc. The sixteen Mahajanapadas are as follows:

Kasi

Kasi is ancient Iron Age kingdom belonging to Bharata clan. In later Iron Age, Kāśī was a powerful state with imperial ambitions, its capital Vārāṇasī being the largest city in South Asia. Kāśī frequently clashed with neighbouring kingdoms, annexing Kosala and subjugating Aṅga, Magadha, and others. It was eventually conquered by Kosala under King Kaṃsa before Buddha’s time and later became part of Magadha’s empire after Ajātasattu annexed Kosala.

Kosala

Its capital was Shravasti. It was located in the Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It covers today’s districts Faizabad, Gonda, Bhahraich etc. and was bordered by River Gomti on the west, River Sadaniva in the east, Nepal hills in the north and River Syandika in the South. It was ruled in Iron Age by Ikshvaku dynasty with Ayodhya its capital. During Mahajanapada era, Shravasti served as its capital. Kosala encompassed tribes like the Shakyans, Mallakas, Koliyas, Kālāmas, and Moriyas, roughly corresponding to modern Awadh. Politically, Kosala expanded under King Mahakosala and Pasenadi, annexing Kashi and adjoining republics. But then, Kosala was absorbed by Magadha in the 5th century BC.

Anga

Anga was located around Bhagalpur, Munger area of Bihar between Champa river and Rajmahal hills. Its capital was Champa (modern Bhagalpur). It was later annexed to Magadha by Bimbisar.

Magadha

The initial capital of Magadha was Girivraja or Rajgriha. It covered the modern districts of Patna, Gaya, Shahabad of Bihar. It was bordered by River Son non North and Ganga on South. Magadha was culturally distinct from Vedic kingdoms, forming “Greater Magadha,” where Kshatriyas ranked above Brahmins and Vedic rituals were rejected. It was the center of the Śramaṇic movements, giving rise to Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvika, with royal patronage from rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru of the Haryanka dynasty. The Puranas cite the Brihadratha dynasty as Magadha’s first rulers. Magadhi Prakrit, spoken here, evolved into languages like Magahi and Maithili; Pali, the Buddhist canonical language, is linked to Magadhi. Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) served as the early capital, but later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra.

Vajji or Vriji

During Iron age, Vajji was a gaṇasaṅgha (aristocratic oligarchic republic) of 8 smaller clans (Athakula) with capital at Vaishalī and was most powerful tribe within Vajjika league. Tensions with Magadha escalated under King Ajātasattu. Ajātasattu defeated and annexed the Vajjika League by 468 BCE, ending Vajji’s republican polity. The Vajjika League’s territory was later known as “Vṛji janapada.”

Malla

During iron age, it was a ganasangha with two capitals at Kusinara and Pava; and it was part of Vajjika League. It covered the modern districts of Kushinagar, Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur in Eastern Uttar Pradesh. The two Malla republics maintained sovereignty within the Vajjika League and had uncordial relations. The Buddha spent his final days in Kusinārā, and after his death, both Malla republics claimed and enshrined his relics. They fought alongside the Vajjika League against Magadha under Ajātasattu, who defeated and annexed them by 468 BCE, ending their republican status but allowing limited autonomy under Mauryan rule.

Chedi or Cheti

Cedī was located in central India corresponding to eastern Bundelkhaṇḍ. Its neighbors included Matsya, Kāsī, Kāruṣas, and Daśārṇas. The capital, Sotthivatī (Śuktimatī), was situated by a river of the same name; its exact location is uncertain but proposed sites include near Banda, Uttar Pradesh, and Itaha near Rewa, Madhya Pradesh.

Vatsa

Vatsa was located south of the Ganga with its capital at Kauśāmbī on the Yamuna river. It was a branch of the Kuru dynasty; after the flood destruction of Hastinapura, King Nicakṣu shifted the capital to Kauśāmbī. The Vatsas controlled the Lower Doab, while the Kurus held the Upper Doab and Haryana/Delhi. Vatsa was divided into two branches at Mathura and Kauśāmbī.

Kuru

Its capital was Indraprastha / Hastinapur / Isukara. Kuru was the first recorded state-level society in the Indian subcontinent during the Middle Vedic period (c. 1200–900 BCE), formed by the alliance of Bharata and Puru tribes after the Battle of Ten Kings. The Kuru territory was divided into Kuru-jaṅgala (forest), Kuru territory proper, and Kuru-kṣetra (region), covering parts of modern Haryana, Delhi, and western Uttar Pradesh. Major rivers in the Kuru kingdom included the Sarasvatī, Gaṅgā, Aruṇā, Aṃśumatī, Hiraṇvatī, Āpayā, Kauśikī, and Dṛṣadvatī.

Panchala

Panchala was located in Ganga-Yamuna Doab in Kanyakubja (Kannauj). It originated from a fusion of five tribes (Krivis, Turvashas, Keshins, Srinjayas, Somakas) and was initially monarchical before becoming an oligarchic confederacy; and later a Mahajanapada. Its capitals were Ahichhtra (Northern Panchal) and Kampilya (Southern Panchala). It covered modern day northern Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand. The last independent ruler, Achyuta, was defeated by Samudragupta, leading to Panchala’s incorporation into the Gupta Empire.

Matsya

Matsya was located in northeastern Rajasthan (Alwar, Bharatpur, Jaipur districts) with Virāṭanagara (modern Bairāṭ) as its capital. The name Matsya/Macchā means “fish” in Sanskrit and Pāli. It bordered the Sarasvatī river to the west and hills near the Chambal River to the south, neighboring Kuru and Sūrasena states. Unlike many contemporaries, Matsya retained a monarchical system rather than shifting to a republican form.

Surasena

Surasena was located on the Yamuna river with Mathura as its capital. It was inhabited by the Vrishnis and Andhakas, branches of the Yadu tribe, claiming descent from the Rigvedic Yadus. Ancient Greek writers like Megasthenes referred to Surasena as Sourasenoi, mentioning cities Methora (Mathura) and Cleisobora (Krishnapura). Buddhist texts mention King Avantiputta of Surasena during Gautama Buddha’s time. It was located on the junction of Uttarpatha and Dakshinpatha around Mathura of Today.

Asamka / Assaka

Aśmaka (Assaka) was the only southern Mahajanapada among the sixteen Mahajanapadas located along the Godavari River in present-day Telangana, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh. Its capital, known as Podana, Potali, Paudanyapura, or Potana, is identified with modern Bodhan in Telangana or Paithan in Maharashtra. Aśmaka existed during the time of the Brāhmaṇas and was mentioned by Panini (7th century BCE) as a Deccan kingdom watered by the Godavari. It annexed the small kingdom of Mūlaka, becoming Avanti’s southern neighbor. Aśmaka was known for its wealth, abundance of food and gems, and is referenced in Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya and Sutta Nipata.

Avanti

Avanti Mahajanapada was located in present-day Malwa, divided by the Vindhyas into northern (capital Ujjayini) and southern (capital Mahishmati) parts. The Haihayas, a confederation of five clans including Vitihotras, initially ruled Avanti from Mahishmati. Pradyota, a Vitihotra ruler contemporary to Buddha, was known for wars against Vatsa and Takshashila and had a Buddhist queen who built a stupa in Ujjayini. Palaka, his successor, was overthrown by a revolt placing Aryaka on the throne. Avanti became a western province (Avantirāṭṭha) under the Nanda and Maurya empires, with Ashoka serving as its governor.

Gandhara

Gandhāra was located in present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, with key cities including Pushkalavati (Charsadda), Takshasila (Taxila), and Purushapura (Peshawar). Gandhara later became part of the Maurya Empire, with Taxila as a major educational center where Chanakya tutored Chandragupta Maurya. Successive rule included Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians, and the Kushan Empire, under which Gandhara reached its cultural zenith (1st–5th century CE), noted for Greco-Buddhist art and the spread of Mahayana Buddhism.

Kamboja

Its capital Rajpur. It was located around Hndukush mountains of Kashmir.

Magadha Empire

Of all the Mahajanapadas, Magadha eventually emerged as most powerful mainly because of its peculiar geographical location. It was bordered by Ganga River in North, Son River in West, Vindhya ranges in south and Champa in East. The natural barriers protected Magadha from three sides and it was not easy to invade such a territory.

Early History

Earliest known king of Magadha was Brihadrath whose name appears in Rig-Veda as well as Puranas. His son Jarasandha was killed by Bhima in Mahabharata war. The Brihadrath dynasty was followed by Pradyotas. By that time, the practice of killing one’s father to usurp the throne had crept in. The Pradyotas were notorious for patricide and irked people overthrew them in a civil revolt. Next in the line was Haranyaka dynasty, whose great King Bimbisara is remembered as most powerful King of Magadha before Mauryas. Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha as well as Mahavira. Bimbisara used matrimonial alliances and sending envoys to expand his power. Since patricide was in vogue those days, Bimbisara also became a victim of it. His son Ajatshatru starved him to death. Ajatshatru was also a valorous king who expanded his empire by fighting war with Kashi, Licchhavis and others. During his reign, Mahavira, Buddha and also Makkhali Gosala or Gosala Maskariputta, the founder of Ajivikas path attained Nirvana. Ajatshatru was a devout Buddhist as well as Jain. He enshrined the relics of Buddha in a stupa and renovated many monasteries. Under his sponsorship, the first Buddhist Council was organized at Sattapani caves in Rajgir. By that time, Rajgir served as capital of Magadha. Ajatshatru built a fort at Pataliputra and his son Udayin developed Pataliputra as a city. Ajatshatru was also a victim of patricide by his son Udayin. Same fate was shared by almost all kings of Haranyaka dynasty. Again, there was a civil revolt and public placed Shishunaga on throne of Magadha. Shishunaga was amatya (minister) of last Haranyaka king Nagadasaka. Kalasoka, the son of Shishunaga made Pataliputra as new capital of Magadha. He may be of dark complexion as the contemporary Sri Lankan texts mention his name as Kakavarna (of color like a crow). Kalsoka sponsored second Buddhist council in 383 BC under monk Sabakami. His ten sons ruled simultaneously before Magadha slipped into hands of Nandas. The founder of Nanda dynasty was Mahapadmananda. Since he had one of the largest standing armies in the history of world {2 Lakh infantry, 8000 war chariots, 6000 elephants!}, he is also called Ugrasena. His army was so large that he could arrange it in a lotus shape {Padmavyuh} and he was so wealthy that his wealth could be counted in Padma (One quadrillion). He subdued all the contemporary powers and consolidated power of Magadha. Mahapadmananda, who is thought to be from humble origin {son of a barber} was the first non-kshatriya ruler in the history of India. Nandas were also the first empire builders of India. The Nadas ruled for around 100 years. During the reign of last Nanda ruler Dhananada, Alexander invaded from west. Alexander was able to cross Beas but before he could cross Ganga, he heard that Dhananda’s 2 Lakh strong army is waiting for his men for a bloody massacre. His army lost the confidence and moved back. While moving back, he died on the way probably due to Malaria. However, this invasion along with several other such invasions from west had put the North-West on boil. In Magadha, the popularity of Dhananda had went down because of his lavishness and greed that led to extortion and corruption. The situation was such that any brave heart could seize the opportunity to topple the Nandas. This opportunity was cashed by Kautilya, who was once thrown out of Nanda’s court. To seek revenge, he groomed Chandragupta Maurya, the brave young man, who is thought to be the son of Dhananda’s shudra concubine Mura. Chandragupta first gave a death blow to Greeks in north-west and then attacked and dethroned the Nandas. Nandas life was spared and they were asked to run with as much treasure as much their chariot could carry. The most important implication of rise of Chandragupta Maurya was that India was, for the first time perhaps, united politically. The below map shows the extent of Maurya empire at that time. Meanwhile, Alexander was succeeded by his one of his generals Seleucus, who launched a campaign to get back the Greek territories lost to Mauryas. He was able to cross Indus but could not succeed to defeat Chandragupta. An alliance was made in which Seleucus returned some of the won areas to Chandragupta. Chandragupta gifted some 500 war elephants to Seleucus and also some kind of matrimonial alliance was made in which son / daughter of one was married to the daughter / son of other. Seleucus also sent Megasthenes to court of Chandragupta. In the old age, Chandragupta abdicated the throne in favour of his son Bindusara and became a disciple of Jain Monk Bhadrabahu. He spent his last days at Sharavanbelgola and supposed to have died practicing Santhara there. Chandragupta’s successor Bindusara (also known as Amitraghata- destroyer of enemies) carried on the legacy of Mauryas and cemented good alliances with Greek King Antiochus-I. He ruled for some 25 years and was successes by Ashoka after a bloody battle of succession among his sons. Before becoming ruler of Magadha, Asoka had shown his valour in Taxila and Avanti where he was sent by his father mainly to subdue the revolts. He served as Governor of Taxila and Ujjain before terminating as many as 99 other contenders to the throne of his father. He was such a cruel person that some texts call him Chandashoka. During the time of Ashoka, the boundaries of Maurya empire extended to maximum by that time. He invaded and annexed Kalinga mainly because Kalinga controlled land and sea routes to South India. However, this battle changed his mind and introduced a new element in the politics of India in the form of cultural coherence based on the moral values of Buddhism and a norm of benignity, civility and humanity in matters of governance. However, such a policy was bound to have its side effects on polity after Ashoka’s death. Asoka died in 232 BC after ruling for four decades. His sons could not survive the waves of changes. His six successors including Jaluka, Samprati and Dasaratha could rule for only 52 years. The life of last Maurya ruler Brihadrath was troubled. By this time, there were repeated attacks of Yavanas / Greeks from western side. His brave commander Pushyamitra Shunga was able to repel two attacks of Greeks but was not happy with the attitude of his master. He killed Brihadrath in 185-184 BC and thus closed the chapter of Mauryas from Indian history, founding Sunga dynasty. Pushyamitra and his son Agnimitra ruled from Pataliputra. The later Shungas made Vidisha as their capital. However, by the time of Shungas, many independent rulers had appeared in west as well as south. The most remarkable was rise of Satavahanas in south and Indo-Greeks, Kushanas, and many others in west and Kharvela in Kalinga (east). Thus, the boundaries of Magadh by the time of Shunga had narrowed down to some parts of Central India only as shown in below graphics: The last Shunga ruler Devabhuti was killed by his own amatya (minister) Vasudeva Kanva around 73BC. Thus, Magadha slipped into hands of Kanvas, who were Brahmins by caste. Only few rulers of this Kanva dynasty are known on the basis of numismatics. This dynasty was finally overthrown by Satavahanas in 30 BC and thus once mighty Magadha was broken into many small parts ruled by different dynasties at different periods.

Notes on Ashoka

The Sri Lankan texts portrait Ashoka as a cruel prince, who terminated all of his 99 brothers except his uterine brother Tisya for throne. Ashoka has been mentioned by different names in different texts and edicts. In most of the edicts, he is mentioned as Devanampiya and Piyadassi. In Babhru Inscription, he is mentioned as Piyadassi laja Magadhe (Piyadassi, King of Magadha). The Maski edict mentions his name as Asoka while Puranas name him Asokavardhana. Girnar Inscription of Rudradaman mentions him as Asoka Maurya.

Edicts and Inscriptions

Type	Location (Examples)	Language / Script	Key Contents / Highlights
Major Rock Edicts	Girnar (Gujarat), Kalsi (Uttarakhand), Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan), Mansehra (Pakistan), Sopara (Maharashtra), Dhauli (Odisha), Jaugada (Odisha)	Mostly Prakrit / Brahmi (Kharosthi in NW)	Policies of Dhamma (moral law), religious tolerance, welfare of people, and animal rights.
Minor Rock Edicts	Maski, Brahmagiri, Gavimath, Rajula Mandagiri (Andhra/Karnataka), Bairat (Rajasthan), Rupanath, Panguraria	Prakrit / Brahmi	Personal beliefs of Ashoka, conversion to Buddhism, promotion of Dhamma, often more personal.
Major Pillar Edicts	Topra (now at Delhi), Meerut, Allahabad (Prayagraj), Lauriya-Nandangarh (Bihar), Lauriya-Araraj, Rampurva, Sanchi	Prakrit / Brahmi	Moral codes, governance, social welfare, Dhamma Mahamatras, and justice.
Minor Pillar Edicts	Sanchi, Sarnath, Kosambi, Nigali Sagar, Rummindei (Nepal)	Prakrit / Brahmi (some Sanskrit)	Specific religious references, pilgrimage sites (e.g., Lumbini), donations to Buddhist Sangha.
Bhabru Edict	Bhabru (Bairat, Rajasthan)	Prakrit / Brahmi	Ashoka’s endorsement of Buddhist texts, deep faith in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha.
Queen’s Edict	Allahabad Pillar	Prakrit / Brahmi	Mentions donation by Ashoka’s queen, unique among the edicts.

Apart from defining the boundaries of Maurya Empire, the inscriptions of Ashoka provide many details about contemporary life, administration and religion. British archaeologist and historian James Prinsep decoded these edicts.

• Geographical dispersion: The edicts and inscriptions of Asoka are dispersed in modern India, Pakistan and Nepal.
• Languages and Scripts: They are in four languages depending on their location viz. Prakrit (Magadhi / Ardhamagadhi), Sanskrit, Greek and Aramaic. The Prakrit and Sanskrit inscriptions have been written in Brahmi script. The inscriptions in Pakistan region were written in Kharoshthi script. Rest were written in Greek or Aramaic scripts. However, the Kandahar Rock Inscription is bilingual.
• Subject Matters: Most inscriptions discuss about Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare efforts. You can check the contents of these edicts-wise here. The various subjects were as follows:
  • Prohibition of animal slaughter, festive gathering and killing of animals.
  • Care for man, animals, Brahmins and Monks. “Every human is my child…” Tolerance for all people. King’s desire to know about conditions of people. Welfare measures.
  • Discuss about the Chola, Pandyas, Satyaputra and Keralputras (Cheras) as Kingdoms of Asoka in South India.
  • Sending of Rajukas (rural officers), Pradesikas (district officers) and Yuktas (subordinate officers) to all areas of Kingdom every five year to spread message of Asoka’s Dhamma policy.
  • Supremacy of Dhammaghosha on Bherighosa and appointment of Dhammamahamattas for spread of Dhamma.
  • Asoka’s first Dhammayatra to Bodhgaya and Bodhi tree.
  • Victory over Kalinga and how it changed his heart.
  • Hint about Asoka’s contemporaries’ viz. Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander, Cholas, Pandyas, Kamboj, Nabhaks, Bhoja, Andhra
  • Giving away the Barabara cave to Ajivika sect.
• Apart from the above, the following things must be noted with their respective pillar names:
• The Rummindei Pillar Inscription discusses about Asoka’s visit to Lumbini & exemption of Lumbini from tax. This is the first direct archeological evidence of Buddha’s birth in Lumbini.
• Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription was originally located at Kapilvastu. It mentions that Asoka increased the height of stupa of Buddha Konakamana to its double size.

Special Notes

• Language & Script: Most edicts were in Prakrit, written in Brahmi script. In the northwest, Kharosthi and Aramaic/Greek were also used (especially in Kandahar, Afghanistan).
• Shahbazgarhi & Mansehra: Only Kharosthi-scripted Major Rock Edicts.
• Rummindei Edict: Identifies Lumbini as Buddha’s birthplace.
• Kandahar Greek Edict: Bilingual (Greek and Aramaic), unique to Hellenistic regions of Ashoka’s empire.

Notes on Conquest of Kalinga

Several inscriptions have discussed about Asoka’s conquest on Kalinga (modern Odisha). Asoka had invaded Kalinga in 9th year of his reign.

• Reason for Invasion: Maurya Empire was probably in friendly terms with the southern kings such as Cholas and Pandyas. Kalinga was strategically located because:
  • It was located in the heart of his territory
  • It controlled routes to South India.
• Once Kalinga was won, there was no much need to win over further territories. The Kalinga war was a horrifying event. It mentions that hundred and fifty thousand people were displaced, hundred thousand people were killed and many hundred thousand perished. The vivid description of Kalinga war is given in 13thRock Edict. After the war of Kalinga Asoka realized the gravity of war and the event had a profound impact on his mind. He vowed to never wage such war and also directed his sons and grandsons.
• The 13thRock edict mentions Asoka’s remorse after the war and his changed attitude from Digvijay to Dhammavijay. Asoka adopted Buddhism in 9th year of his reign after winning Kalinga. Nigrodha, a boy monk, inspired him. Later, he met Moggaliputta Tissa, who ultimately become his mentor. Later his brother Tissa, queen Karuvaki also adopted Buddhism.

Asoka’s Dhamma

In the Bhabru edict Asoka says that he has full faith in Buddha, Sangha and Dhamma. But he never forced his ideal on people. The Pillar Edict II says: Dhamma sadhu, kiyam cu dhamme ti? Apasinave, bahu kayane, daya, dane, sace, socaye. The meaning is: Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes) little evil, much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity. In his Pillar Edict VII, he says that all sects desire both self control and purity of mind. In the Major Rock Edict XII, he directed and determined request for tolerance among different religious sects. He says that he honors all sects and both laymen and monks. We can say that Asoka’s Dhamma is a moral code of ethics. Asoka propagated his Dhamma with zeal and earnestness of a missioanry. He mentions in Minor Rock Edict I that as a result of his efforts for 1 year (or more) “Human beings who were unmixed were cause to be mixed with Gods throughout Jambudweepa. This was because of his well planned measures such as celestial Chariots (Vimana), luminous balls of Fire (used for showing light in nights) and elephants. Asoka abandoned the pleasure tours (vihara yatras) and hunting. Note: Asoka sponsored the third Buddhist Council in 250 BC. This council was held at Pataliputra. It was presided by Moggaliputta Tissa. Abhidhamma Pitaka was established in this council.

Reasons for Decline of Maurya Empire

Asoka died in 232 BC after a reign of 40 years. The Maurya Empire declined in few decades of his death. There were several reasons for this. Firstly, immediately after the death of Asoka, the Maurya territories were partitioned into two parts viz. east and west. This partition disturbed the unity of the empire. Secondly, most of the successors of Asoka were weak and could not handle the highly centralized administration which only a robust political leader could manage. Thirdly, the pious policy of Asoka might have its own implications. However, this reason is debated because Asoka had left only policy of annexation but still maintained a huge army. Fourthly, it is argued that a Brahmical revolution ended Maurya empire. This argument has little weight.

The Insignificance of Coins

About the Mauryan Empire, we know from the literary sources, Epigraphic Sources and Foreign Accounts but the Numismatic Sources are least significant because the coins were punch marked and not beard many details. The coins became a major source of historic information only much later after Mauryas.

The Maski Edict revealed name of Asoka

Maski is a site near Tungabhadra River in Karnataka’s Raichur District. In 1915, a minor rock edict of Emperor Ashoka (Maski Edict) was discovered by C. Beadon. This edict had the name of King Asoka. Prior to this edict, all edicts had the name of Devanampiye piyadasi and after the discovery of this edict, the real name of Asoka was concluded and it was also concluded that all the edicts found in the Indian Sub Continent were of Asoka.

The lake constructed by Mauryas

Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman-I mentions that Girnar Lake was constructed by the Mauryas and he repaired some parts of this lake. It was a dam built by Mauryas to check floods.

Administration, Economy and Life in Maurya Era

The Mauryan imperial polity held sway over nearly three quarters of India’s landmass for a period little less than two centuries. As with any other great empire, the genesis of Maurya Empire was in the economic and military strength of its heartland and the ability of its leaders to asset their military power beyond their frontiers. This ability was asserted by first three emperors of the dynasty. There were three major governance factors behind the Maurya hegemony. First, there was a highly centralized administrative machinery with a steel frame of bureaucratic institutions and machinery comparable to modern Indian administration. Secondly, the administrative diktats were able to infuse a sense of security and belonging to the masses though it demanded strict obedience to the emperor. Third was a contradictory element which made its way after the conquest of Kalinga in the form of moral exhortation inscribed on stone in several parts of the empire. These messages instituted an ideal norm of benign and humane governance as a benchmark of political maturity. This third element did not last long beyond life of Asoka and is called the Mauryan Paradox. Here is a summary of the administration and life of the Maurya world.

The King

King was the supreme source of all powers and was center of all authorities, judiciary and administration. In the highly centralized administration, King used to select ministers, high officials and established a well-planned system of supervision and inspection.

The Mantriparishada

King was assisted by his council of Ministers (Mantriparishahda), which was headed by a mantriparishadadhyakshya. The mantriparishadadhyakshya was also head of the ubiquitous civil servants called Adhyakshas or Amatyas kept in touch with all sections of the society and made a highly skilled secretariat divided into several departments. Some of these departments and their Adhyakshas are listed below:

• Akahalapadhyksha (Accountant General )
• Sannidhata (Royal Treasury)
• Koshthagara (Treasury Superitendent) )
• Akaraadhyaksha (Mines Superitendent) )
• Suvarnaadhyaksha (Gold Superitendent)
• Panyaadhksha (Commerce Superitendent)
• Kupyadhyaksha (Forest Officer)
• Lavanadhyaksha (Salt )
• Ayudhgaraadhyaksha (Armoury)
• Tulamanapantavaadhyaksha or Pautavadhyaskh (Weights and Measurements)
• Sutraadhyaksha (Textiles – spinning and weaving)
• Sitaadhyaksha (Agriculture)
• Suradhyaksha (Excise)
• Navadhyasksha (Shipping and maritime)
• Mudradhyaksha (Government documents)
• Pattanadhyaskha (Ports)
• Lakshanaadhyaskha (Mint)
• Samstha (Trade Routes )

Provincial Administration:

It is thought that the Maurya empire was divided into 5 provinces.

1. The Northern Province Uttarpatha was having its capital at Taxila and some mandals were Shakal, Kandhar and Saurastra.
2. The Southern province Dakshinpatha’s capital was Suvarngiri.
3. Western province Avantipatha’s capital was Ujjain
4. The eastern Prachyapatha was having its capital at Toshali near Kalinga.
5. Magadha was the Central province & Capital of the entire kingdom.

The provinces were administered by either a prince or a member of the royal family which was the viceroy of the king.

District Administration

Each district was administered by three officers’ viz. Pradeshika, Rajuka, & Yukta. Pradesika was senior and Rajuka was subordinate. Yukta was subordinate to both of them. It was duty of the Pradesika to tour the kingdom every five year and collect details of the administration.

Village Administration

Village was the smallest unit of polity and it was called Grama. The head of the grama was a Gramika. The Gramika was not a paid employee of the government but was elected by the village people. The 10 villages were collectively headed by a Gopa and 100 villages were collectively headed by a Sthanaka. Gramika in Open Panchayats solved most disputes.

Gudhapurusha or Spies

There was a well knitted espionage system of Gudhapurushas in the Mauryan administration. The spies were of two kind viz. Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wandering). These spies were ears and eyes of the King, who kept the king informed about all the details of the bureaucracy. The agents included householders, merchants, disciples, ascetics, pensioners and Poisonous girls called “Vishkanyas”. The ambassadors who were appointed in the foreign countries were also sort of spies.

The Army

The overall in charge of the Mauryan army was Commander in chief, who was immediately junior to the King. The Mauryan army included 6 Lakh infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9000 war elephants, 1000 chariots and other things such as transport equipments. There was a War Council, which was further divided into 6 sub-councils each with 5 members which formulated policy for infantry, cavalry, elephant forces, chariots, navy and commiserate. Navy, Transport in forces and commiserate were Mauryan innovations.

Transport

There was a separate department of road. The width of the cattle tracks, pedestrians, chariots and other traffic were different. There were trunk roads which were managed by the department of Roads. Trees were planted on both sides of the roads. Inns were constructed at places on the road. Nurseries and drinking water facilities such as wells, canals were provided

The Agriculture

Sitadhyaksha was the chief of the Agriculture department. There was full-fledged irrigation department as well. There was a network of canals which provided the water for irrigation as per the measurements of the land i.e. requirements. Pushyagupta, who was a provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya, constructed “Sudarshan Lake” at Girnar in Gujarat. Rice of different verities was grown, Kondrava was a kind of coarse grain. Wheat, Pulses, Saffron, Mustard, Linseed, Sesamum etc. were grown.

Caste System and Slaves

There was a well-developed “caste” system as per the accounts of Megasthenes. Megasthenes writes that there were seven castes viz. philosophers (he indicated Brahmins), farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, craftsmen, magistrates and soldiers. So based upon the account we can figure out that still the caste system was based upon “occupation” rather than birth. The marriage and polygamy both were present. Polygamy was confined to Royal classes. Normal people could marry to other women if there was no “son”. The women had their property in the form of Stridhana, which included bridal gift. Women enjoyed high status. The women were appointed as assistances and bodyguards of King. Offenses against women were punishable. There was no slavery in the sense that people used to work as dasa, out of their own compulsions. No Arya including a Shudra could be made dasa forcibly. The 14th book of Arthashastra titled Secret Means (Aupanisadika) deals with a number of rites and practices.

The Mauryan Art

Mauryas contributed to arts significantly. The palace of Chandragupta Maurya at the Pataliputra was mostly made up of wood. The traces of this palace have been found at Kumhrar near Patna. It’s an 80-pillar hall, which speaks of Mauryan Palace art. A large number of Stupas were built in Mauryan Era, many of them by Asoka. The Buddhist tradition writes that Asoka built 84000 Stupas. The rock cut caves of Mauryan era are at Barabar hills, located near Gaya and they are oldest surviving Rock Cut caves.The Nagarjuna Hills rock cut caves are of Asoka and his successors. The barabar caves have been cut of granite and are large halls which provided place for worshippers. The Asokan Pillars are Monolithic and mostly used Hard sandstone procured from Chunar near Varanasi. They were finely chiselled and highly polished. There are two distinct categories of Maurya art viz. Royal art and popular art. The Yaksha image from parkam and Yakshini Image from Besnagar are examples of popular art. While, the pillars are example of Royal art.

Census

There was a proper system of census, which registered all the details of the deaths and births. Nagarika was the census officer who was responsible to keep a ready reference data of the farmers, cattle, traders, cowherds etc. This was to ensure that proper tax is levied.

Public health

There were proper hospitals and Bheshajas (Doctors) appointed along with a team of midwifes, nurses etc. Treatment was free universally. Food adulteration was a punishable offense which invited a death sentence.

Crimes and Judiciary

Suppression of crimes, maintenance of peace and protection of the subjects were the chief duties of the King. The antisocial elements were called “Kantakas”. There were two kinds of courts “civils” and criminals. The civils courts were Dharmastheya and the Criminal Courts were “Kantakashodhna”. The idea of Kantakashodhna was to weed out the antisocial elements. The king was the source of Supreme Justice. Death Sentences were common and Asoka’s edicts detail that he gave additional time to the persons under the Capital punishment to offer donations and repent so that they get a better life in next birth.

Economy: Revenue & Taxes

There was an advanced concept of “responsibility accounting’ which envisaged a preparation of budget and activity planning, reporting on the revenue and expenditure, responsibility for both the revenues and expenditures. The “full treasury” was guarantee to the prosperity of state says Arthashastra. Treasury received revenues from farms, mines, forests, pasture lands etc. Tributes were received when a prince was born. Chief source for revenue was “land tax”. It was 1/6 to 1/4 of the total produce and it was collected by the revenue officers. The more productive lands and irrigated lands invited more tax. All craftsmen (except royal) and traders paid taxes. Taxes were of two kinds viz. Bali & Bhaga. The Bali was religious tribute. Bhaga was the part of the produce. Asoka edict says that Lumbini was exempted from Bali and Bhaga was reduced to 1/8 parts of the reduce. Bhaga, which was 1/6th of the produce, was called shadbhaga (6th part) or Rajbhaga (state part). Maintenance of the Royal palaces, members, ministers and public welfare were the main avenues to use the revenue.

Foreign Trade

Foreign Trade by means of the land and sea was prevalent, and it was regulated by passports kinds of documents. Indigo, cotton and silk was most traded property. Antiochus I with his joint rule with Selucus issued coins of Indian standard rather than the Attic Standard. This shows that the Mauryan Economy was world’s largest economy and the currency of Mauryas was accepted worldwide and was main currency of that time. The trade routes were called Vanikpatha.

Society under Maurya Empire: Important Observations

Megasthenes’ Castes Differ from Varna System

• The Greek ambassador Megasthenes, who stayed at Chandragupta Maurya’s court, described 7 social classes in India—not based on birth, but occupation (philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herders, artisans, magistrates, councilors).
• This differs from the varna system, showing a possibly state-influenced reorganization of society under the Mauryas.

Sophisticated Urban Governance

• Cities like Pataliputra had municipal committees (as per Megasthenes) for sanitation, trade regulation, foreign affairs, and more.
• These committees might represent proto-bureaucratic institutions, predating modern civic administrations by centuries.

Ashoka’s Edicts: Early State Communication

• Ashoka’s edicts were written in multiple languages (Prakrit, Greek, Aramaic) and scripts (Brahmi, Kharosthi), suggesting a multilingual and multicultural empire.
• Some edicts were tailored to foreign communities like Greeks in Kandahar, indicating state awareness of diverse populations.

Social Impact of Dhamma

• Ashoka’s policy of Dhamma wasn’t a religion, but a moral code promoting tolerance, nonviolence, and welfare.
• He created a new class of officers—Dhamma Mahamatras—to spread moral behavior and resolve inter-religious disputes, a rare ancient example of state-sponsored ethics.

Labor and State Projects

• Massive state projects (roads, hospitals, irrigation) may have involved a mix of paid labor and corvée (forced but rotational public work).
• Ashoka’s edicts even mention shade trees and rest houses being planted for travelers—an early model of state welfare infrastructure.

Elephants as Social Currency

• Elephants were not just military assets—they were a symbol of royal status and power.
• High-ranking officials and nobles were awarded elephants, and ownership signified prestige, like owning a luxury car today.

Education and Intellectual Centers

• The Mauryas supported major centers of learning like Takshashila and Nalanda (early form), which hosted scholars from as far as Central Asia.
• Subjects taught included medicine, logic, politics, Vedas, astronomy, and even law, accessible to both Brahmanical and heterodox traditions like Buddhism and Jainism.

Non-Brahmanical Influence on Society

• Chandragupta and Ashoka both embraced non-Vedic traditions—Jainism and Buddhism respectively—challenging Brahmanical dominance over religious and social life.
• This created space for non-Brahmin elites, monks, and laypeople to gain social prestige and political influence.

State-Controlled Economy

• The Arthashastra (attributed to Chanakya/Kautilya) details an economy heavily regulated by the state: from mining, agriculture, pricing, to prostitution.

Women in Mauryan Society

• Women worked in palace security, served as female bodyguards, spies, and even as state entertainers, per the Arthashastra.
• Widow remarriage was rare but not forbidden. Certain high-born women, especially those attached to the royal court, held substantial influence.

Environmental Ethics

• Ashoka’s edicts banned animal sacrifices and limited hunting, encouraged tree planting, and protection of wildlife—among the earliest environmental regulations in human history.

Shunga Empire

Four rulers of Shunga or Sunga Dynasty were Pushyamitra Sunga (185 BC TO 151 BC), Agnimitra (149 BC -141 BC), Bhagabhadra (114 BC -83 BC) and Devabhuti (87-73 BC) After the Kalinga war, Asoka became a monk and expansion of Buddhism in other countries took place during his time. None of the later Mauryas was efficient to keep vast Magadh empire intact, which under Asoka was extended from the foot of the Hindu Kush to the borders of the Tamil country.

The Last Maurya: Brihadratha

The sources of history after Mauryas are scant. There was no account left by Kautilya and Megasthenes about the later Mauryas. Our knowledge about the later Mauryas is based upon Puranas, Jain and Buddhism texts. Different Puranas give different accounts of Asoka’s successors. The account given by Vayu Purana says that Asoka was succeeded by Kunala while the Matsya Purana says that Asoka was succeeded by Suyasas. But all Purana accounts as well as Harchacharita of Banabhatta says- that the last Mauryan ruler was Brihadratha. Brihadratha was a weak ruler and his Senapati Pushymitra Shunga while a parading the entire Mauryan army before Brihadratha to show him the strength of the army assassinated him and this was the end of the Mauryas. Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty in around 185-183 BC. Capital of Shunga Dynasty Was Pataliputra and its major centers were Ujjain, Mathura, Saket, Sanchi, and Kapilvastu. Vidisha was capital of later Shunga rulers. {The empire included modern West Bengal and parts of Bangladesh, some parts of northern Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh . In South India, the contemporary of Mauryas & Shungas were Saatvahanas, Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas. The extent of Saatvahana was modern Andhra Pradesh, Pandyas was Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and Cheras was Kerala (Cheras derived from Keralaputra). }

Pushyamitra Sunga (185 BC TO 151 BC)

Pushyamitra Shunga the founder and hero of the Shunga dynasty. He was viceroy of the Mauryas at Ujjain and was a real war hero. He was not happy with his king Brihadratha, who failed in containing the Yavanas and attacks from the western sides. Pushyamitra Shunga was also credited to repulse the two attacks of Greeks and also conquest over Vidarbha. The first of these attacks from Greeks, which were repulsed by Pushyamitra Shunga, was under Demetrius and another was under Meander. Pushyamitra is also known to have repelled the Kalinga’s king Kharvela conquest. He is also known to have performed an Ashvamedha Yagna. The Ayodhya Inscription of Dhandeva mentions that he performed two Ashwamedha Yagyas (Horse Sacrifices). As per the Puranas, Pushyamitra Shunga reigned for 36 years. Some evidences say that Pushyamitra Shunga destroyed many stupas of Asoka. But there are also evidences that Barhut Stupa was built during the Shunga Empire only. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra.

Agnimitra : (149 BC -141 BC)

Agnimitra, the second king of Shunga dynasty, succeeded his father Pushyamitra Shunga and reigned for a short period of 8 years. He is the hero of Malvikagnimitram of Kalidasa in which he has been referred to as Raja. By the times of Agnimitra, Vidarbha had become independent of the Maurays. Agnimitra was succeeded by Vasumitra around 131 BC. Who succeeded Vasumitra , not much details are available. Different accounts mention the name of different kings such as Andhraka, Pulindaka, Ghosha or Vajramitra. The last rulers of Shunga dynasty were Bhagabhadra and Devabhuti, about whom we have some details

Bhagabhadra (114 BC -83 BC)

We know about the king Bhagabhadra by a Heliodorus pillar, which has been found in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh near modern Besnagar. Heliodorus was a Greek ambassador and he dedicated this pillar to God Vasudeva (Vishnu). The Heliodorus pillar has a surmounted figure of a Garuda.

Devabhuti (87-73 BC)

Devabhuti was the last Shunga Ruler who was killed by his own minister Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC. Vasudeva Kanva thus assassinated the last ruler of Shunga Dynasty and founded the Kanva Dynasty.

Magadha under Kanvas

When Magadha was under Kanvas, it had further lost its territories in west to ever strong Greeks and in east to different rulers such as Kosala Kingdom {set up by Muladeva after killing one Sunga remnant called Sumitra}. Kanvas were finally dethroned by Satavahanas and Magadha was annexed into Satavahana Empire.

Mahameghavanas of Kalinga

One of the great regional powers that emerged by seizing the opportunity of declining Mauryas in the Gangetic heartland were Mahameghavanas of Kalinga in modern Odisha. The third ruler of this dynasty Kharvela (ruled 209-170BC) emerged mightier and revived the old glory of Kalinga. He had left a Hathigumpha inscription in the Udayagiri cave near Bhubneswar wherein he has given a biographical sketch of his life year by year. He rebuilt the capital of Kalinga (Kalinganagara), destroyed the capitals of Hindu tribes (Musikas, Rastrakas and Bhijakas), extended a canal built by Mauryas, advanced his territorial possessions till Barabar hills by defeating king of Rajgir, built a Mahavijayaprasad (great palace of victory) on banks of river Pranchi, subdued the Brihaspatimitra of Magadha and built a magnificent temple at Bhubneshwar. Thus Kharvela, who seems to be either a Jain / or a freethinker king was able to raid into the hitherto Maurya / Shunga / Kanva / others territories to consolidate his power. He also fought with Satavahana and spread his Kingdom from Ganga to Kaveri. However, after his death, his kingdom declined soon and was finally annexed into Satavahana Empire.

The Indo-Greek rulers

We should know that during the last two centuries of BC era, Northwest and northern Indian subcontinent was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings. The knowledge about these has been attained mostly via the coins issued by them. The areas under these Hellenistic Kings were Taxila, Pakistan’s, Punjab Pushkalavati (Peshavar) & Sagala. Indo-Greek rulers have been mentioned Yavanas in the Indian literature.

Demetrius I (r. c. 200–180 BCE)

• Son of Euthydemus I of Bactria.
• First Indo-Greek ruler to invade India (after the fall of the Mauryan Empire).
• Conquered parts of Punjab, Sindh, and Gandhara.
• Possibly founded cities like Demetria (exact location not known).
• His coins bear legends in Greek and Prakrit written in Greek and Kharoshthi script. The coins were issued in silver and one of the coins was known as “Heracles”.
• Wore elephant-scalp headdress on coins, symbolizing Indian conquest.

Menander I (Milinda) (r. c. 165–130 BCE)

• The most famous Indo-Greek ruler; expanded the kingdom across much of northwestern India.
• Converted to Buddhism; his dialogue with the monk Nagasena is preserved in the Milinda Pañha.
• Ruled from Sagala (modern Sialkot); issued bilingual coins (Greek & Kharosthi).
• Known for just governance and religious tolerance.

Apollodotus I (r. c. 180–160 BCE)

• Possibly ruled independently in western India (Saurashtra, Sindh).
• Apollodotus I was the first king who ruled in India only and this is said to be real founder of the indo-Greek kingdom of India and known as first “Real Indo Greek”.
• First Indo-Greek to issue coins exclusively in India (not Bactria).
• Promoted Greek-Buddhist syncretism, shown in his coin iconography.

Antialcidas (r. c. 115–95 BCE)

• Sent ambassador Heliodorus to the court of Shunga king Bhagabhadra in Vidisha (central India).
• Heliodorus erected the Heliodorus Pillar, a Vishnuite dedication—showing Hindu-Greek relations.
• Encouraged diplomacy and religious integration.

Decline of Indo-Greeks

By 10 CE, Indo-Greek territories were absorbed by the Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians, and Kushans. Indo-Greeks left a profound impact on coinage, art (Gandhara), religion (Buddhism), and cross-cultural fusion.

Indo-Greek Rule – Important Notes on Society and Life

Cosmopolitan Urban Centers

• Indo-Greek cities like Sagala (modern Sialkot) were cosmopolitan hubs where Greek, Indian, Persian, and Central Asian cultures blended.
• Public infrastructure reflected Hellenistic designs: hippodamian street grids, public baths, and possibly gymnasia.

Indo-Greeks were Supporters of Indian Philosophies

• Indo-Greek kings, especially Menander I (Milinda), engaged deeply with Indian thought.
• Menander is said to have converted to Buddhism and became a Bodhisattva after dialogues with the monk Nagasena (as recorded in the Milinda Pañha).
• Greek elites possibly patronized Buddhist monasteries and may have funded stupas and viharas.

Fusion of Religious Icons

• The Indo-Greek period saw the first anthropomorphic depictions of the Buddha, influenced by Greek sculptural styles.
• Greek gods like Apollo and Heracles were sometimes merged with Indian deities—Heracles was shown holding a club and lion-skin, attributes later adopted into early Buddhist representations of Vajrapani.

Bilingualism and Trilingualism

• Coins and inscriptions were often bilingual (Greek and Kharosthi or Brahmi), indicating a multilingual administration.
• The presence of trilingual inscriptions (including Aramaic) in some regions points to deep cultural layering.

Greek Legal Influence

• Though Indian law prevailed in village life, urban centers under Greek control may have operated with Hellenistic legal customs, particularly in commercial disputes or property rights.
• Evidence suggests existence of Greek-style civic assemblies in some towns, a unique feature not seen elsewhere in ancient India.

Advanced Metallurgy & Coinage

• Indo-Greek coins are noted for high-quality silver content and refined artistry.
• They introduced the die-struck coin minting method to India, which later influenced Gupta coinage.
• The coins weren’t just currency—they were political propaganda, showing divine symbols and royal imagery.

Military Innovation

• Indo-Greeks employed Greek phalanx tactics alongside Indian war elephants.
• Their armies likely included mercenaries from Central Asia and local Indian tribes, showing a highly integrated military structure.
• Armor depicted on sculptures shows hybrid influences—Greco-Bactrian helmets with Indian tunics.

Women in Indo-Greek Society

• Though little is directly recorded, artistic depictions suggest Indo-Greek royal women might have held ceremonial or religious roles, possibly influenced by Greek traditions where women were priestesses.

Education and Literacy

• Greek influence likely enhanced formal education in cities, including mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.
• There’s a possibility of Greek-style academies existing in some Indo-Greek cities, fostering learning in both Greek and Indian traditions.

Peaceful Coexistence of Faiths

• Unlike many ancient conquerors, Indo-Greek rulers often assimilated into local traditions rather than imposing theirs.
• Buddhism, Hinduism, and Zoroastrianism coexisted alongside remnants of Hellenistic religion.

Transition from Indo-Greeks → Shakas → Kushana

The Indo-Greeks began to fragment as early as after Menander I’s death (~130 BCE). His successors ruled smaller, isolated pockets in Gandhara, Punjab, and the Kabul valley. These micro-kingdoms became vulnerable to invasions due to infighting and lack of a central authority. The Sakas, a branch of Central Asian nomadic tribes (Iranian-speaking Scythians), were pushed southward by the Yuezhi and Kushan movements in Central Asia. They entered Bactria and later crossed the Hindu Kush into India, exploiting the power vacuum left by weakening Indo-Greek rule. The earliest Saka king in India, Maues (Moga), conquered parts of Gandhara and northwestern Punjab, around 80 BCE. Maues even issued coins mimicking Indo-Greek coinage, suggesting either:

• Political continuity to gain local legitimacy.
• Employment of Indo-Greek mints and officials under Saka rule.

Saka kings often retained Hellenistic administrative and numismatic practices. For instance:

• Bilingual coinage (Greek-Kharosthi).
• Use of Greek titles like Basileus (King).

Some Saka rulers even married into local elites, including Greco-Indian nobility, indicating an effort to legitimize themselves via Indo-Greek prestige. Even after the Sakas took over major territories, some Indo-Greek rulers survived as local vassals or governors. For example, Strato II ruled eastern Punjab long after Maues, possibly as a semi-independent client king under Saka suzerainty. The Mathura lion capital inscription (circa 1st century BCE) records joint rule or interaction between Indo-Greek and Saka officials in the same region, showing overlap rather than immediate conquest. Also notable thing is that both Indo-Greeks and Sakas were strong supporters of Buddhism. The transition did not disrupt monastic life—in fact, some Saka rulers built or restored Buddhist stupas and monasteries (e.g., Maues is mentioned in Buddhist texts as a patron). Saka rulers used coins as a tool to emulate Indo-Greek legitimacy:

• Iconography (e.g., Zeus, Nike) remained.
• Greek legends continued for decades under Saka kings—showing how Indo-Greek culture had deep roots even in successor regimes.

Strategic Urban Shifts under Sakas

• While Indo-Greeks favored cities like Sagala and Taxila, the Sakas began emphasizing Mathura and Ujjain, marking a geopolitical shift eastward and southward.

From Sakas to Kushans: Continuity of Power Blocs

Eventually, the Sakas themselves were absorbed or displaced by the Kushans (Yuezhi origin or Tocharians), continuing the pattern of steppe-origin dynasties reshaping Indian frontiers.

Shakas Rulers & Satrap System

Maues (Moga)

The first known Saka ruler was Maues (Moga), who established Saka control in Gandhara around 80–60 BCE, with his capital at Sirkap. He issued copper and limited silver coins bearing images of Indian deities such as Shiva and Buddha and used Greek and Kharosthi legends. The Taxila Copper Plate, also known as the Moga inscription, written in Kharosthi, mentions the dedication of a Buddha relic by Patika Kusulaka, a subordinate of Maues.

Azes I

Azes I succeeded Maues and completed the conquest of Indo-Greek territories by defeating the Greek ruler Hippostratos. He is credited with founding the Azes Era in 58 BCE, which is identified by some scholars with the Vikrama Samvat. His coinage, bilingual in Greek and Kharosthi, shows continuity of Hellenistic style. He was followed by Azilises, who co-issued coins with Azes I and was later succeeded by Azes II.

Azes II

Azes II ruled between c. 35–12 BCE and is regarded as the last significant Saka ruler before the rise of the Kushans. The Bimaran Casket, discovered in Jalalabad, contained coins of Azes II and is notable for featuring the earliest known image of a standing Buddha flanked by Brahma and Indra as bodhisattvas. The Saka rule in northwestern India ended with their displacement by the Kushanas, who established a new empire in the region.

The Satrap System

The Satrap system used by the Saka rulers in India was influenced by the Achaemenid Persian model. The empire was divided into provinces governed by officials called Satraps (Kshatrapas) and Mahakshatrapas (Great Satraps). These governors had significant autonomy in administration, taxation, and military affairs, while recognizing the suzerainty of the central Saka monarch. This structure allowed the Sakas to effectively govern a large and diverse territory.

Different Satrap Regions

The satrap system was prevalent in Western India, Northwestern India and Northern India. There is no clear evidence of Saka satraps ruling independently in eastern India (like Bengal or Odisha) or the deep south. However, Western Satraps did engage militarily with southern powers such as the Satavahanas, influencing the Deccan region politically but not establishing satrapies there.

Western Satraps

• Region: Gujarat, Malwa, northern Maharashtra
• Dynasties: Kshaharata and Kardamaka branches
• Important Rulers: Nahapana, Chastana, Rudradaman I, Rudrasena I–IV
• Capital(s): Ujjain, Girinagar (modern Junagadh)
• Significance: Longest-lasting Saka polity (c. 35–405 CE); extensive coinage, public works, Sanskrit inscriptions

Chastana

Chastana was the founder of the Western Kshatrapa dynasty. He ruled around 78 CE, during the early years of the Saka Era. His control extended across western India, and his coins show bilingual legends in Greek and Brahmi, signifying both continuity and adaptation.

Rudradaman I

Rudradaman I, grandson of Chastana, was the most prominent Mahakshatrapa. He reigned in the mid-2nd century CE and is best known for the Junagadh Rock Inscription (c. 150 CE), which is one of the earliest inscriptions in classical Sanskrit. It records his repair of the Sudarshana Lake and outlines his military conquests. Rudradaman significantly expanded the Western Kshatrapa territory and resisted the Satavahana dynasty.

Nahapana

Nahapana belonged to the Kshaharata branch of Sakas and ruled western India in the 1st–2nd century CE. He issued a large number of silver coins and is mentioned in inscriptions at Nashik, which document his donations to Buddhist monasteries. His rule ended when he was defeated by Gautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahanas.

Northwestern Satraps (Gandhara, Taxila, parts of Punjab)

• Region: Gandhara, western Punjab, and parts of the Kabul valley
• Important Rulers: Maues, Azes, Patika Kusulaka
• Capital(s): Sirkap (Taxila)
• Significance: These were the earliest Saka satraps in India (from c. 80 BCE); they played a key role in replacing the Indo-Greek rule. Their inscriptions (e.g., Taxila Copper Plate) are some of the earliest written evidence of Saka rule.

We note that Maues, Azes etc. discussed above were not satraps but independent monrachs. Maues is referred to as “Maharaja Mahatama” (Great and Revered King) on his coins, which is a royal title, not a satrapal one. Patika Kusulaka was a satrap.

Northern Satraps / Indo-Scythian Governors

• Region: Eastern Punjab and Upper Ganges region (e.g., Mathura, Kaushambi)
• Associated Rulers: Patika Kusulaka (mentioned in both Taxila and Mathura inscriptions)
• Evidence: Mathura Lion Capital inscription mentions Saka satraps ruling or administering the region.
• Significance: Indicates that the Sakas had governors or dependent satraps in the northern Ganga basin as well, though they did not form an independent dynasty here.

Administrative Autonomy

Satraps often issued independent coinage and made land grants or religious donations in their own name. In some regions, Mahakshatrapas functioned almost as semi-independent rulers, especially in times of weakened central authority. This system ensured political continuity and regional stability even after the decline of central Saka power.

ü Decline of the Satrap System

The satrap system declined with the fall of the Western Kshatrapas in the early 5th century CE, largely due to conquests by the Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II. Despite its decline, the system left a lasting legacy in terms of regional governance, coinage practices, and bureaucratic titles used in later Indian kingdoms.

The Satavahanas

The Satavahanas succeeded the Mauryas in the Deccan region of India. Their rule extended from Pune in present-day Maharashtra to coastal Andhra Pradesh, beginning in the 2nd century BCE. The Satavahana dynasty emerged from the remnants of the Mauryan Empire and, by the 1st century CE, had become the dominant power in what is now Andhra Pradesh.

• The dynasty is referred to by various names in ancient texts and inscriptions, including Sātavāhanas, Sātakarnīs, Andhras, and Andhrabhrityas, as seen in the Puranas and on coins.
• Much of what is known about the Satavahana rulers comes from a mix of legend and archaeological evidence, particularly the large number of coins they issued in lead, silver, and copper alloys.
• The origin of the Satavahanas remains uncertain, though they are generally believed to have been Brahmins. Notably, many Satavahana kings included their mother’s name alongside their own, a distinctive tradition.
• Satavahana coins often featured bilingual inscriptions, typically in Prakrit and a South Indian language.
• The Satavahana kings were patrons of Buddhism, and under their reign, Buddhist centers like Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati flourished.

Important Satavahana Rulers

Simuka Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana Dynasty. He overthrew the Shunga power with support from the Rathikas and Bhojakas. He ruled for 23 years before being beheaded by his brother Kanha, who succeeded him. Kanha The second Satavahana ruler, Kanha expanded the empire further south. He was succeeded by Satakarni I, son of Simuka. Satakarni I Son of Simuka and a prominent early Satavahana king, Satakarni I (Sri Satakarni) was married to Queen Naganika and is referred to as the “Lord of Dakshinapatha.” He expanded the empire into Malwa and the Narmada Valley and performed both the Ashvamedha and Rajasuya yajnas. Satakarni II Ruling from 166 BCE, Satakarni II had the longest reign among Satavahana kings. He is mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, who opposed him militarily. He was followed by Lamobodara, Apilaka, and other lesser-known rulers.

Hala

Hala, the 17th Satavahana king, compiled the Gatha Saptasati (or Gaha Sattasai), a Prakrit anthology of love poetry. He is also mentioned in Lilavati. During his reign, the dynasty came under Kanva suzerainty, and Shaka invasions pushed the Satavahanas southward, with King Nahapana occupying western Deccan. Gautamiputra Satakarni (78–102 CE) Gautamiputra Satakarni revived Satavahana power, defeating the Shakas, Pahlavas, and Yavanas. His reign extended from Malwa and Saurashtra to Kalinga in the east and Kanchi in the south. The Nasik inscription by his mother, Gautami Balashri, details his vast empire and titles like raja-raja and maharaja. Pulumayi II Also known as Vasithiputra Satakarni, Pulumayi II was the son of Gautamiputra Satakarni. He extended Satavahana control to modern-day Bellary (Karnataka). The Girnar inscription by Rudradaman mentions that he defeated Pulumayi II twice but spared him due to familial ties (possibly through marriage to Rudradaman’s daughter, though this is uncertain). Pulumayi II is referenced in the largest number of Satavahana inscriptions, reflecting the expanse of his rule. Toward the end of his reign, the Shakas resurged under Chastana. Pulumayi IV The last known Satavahana ruler, Pulumayi IV, is largely obscure, except for a record of him building a tank in Vepura.

The Legacy of Satavahana Kings

Satavahanas were the first Native Indians who had issued the coins with portraits of their kings. All the coins of Satavahanas used Prakrit dialect and on backside the southern language (Telugu or Kannada). Prakrit seems to be the official language of Satavahanas. The Satavahanas worshipped the Hindu Deities such as Rama, Krishna, Vasudeva etc. but they also patronized the Buddhism. The Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati became the important centers of Buddhism during the reign of Satavahanas and their successors. Satavahanas Built many Chaitya and Viharas. Most of them were rock cut from the solid rock in Northwestern Deccan and Maharashtra. The Karle Chaitya of 1st century BC is one of the most important Chaitya. The Viharas of the 1 century AD at Nasik bear the inscription of the Gautami Putra Satkarni and Nahapana. The Amaravati Stupa was built in the reign of Satavahanas.

Satavahanas: Administration

Satavahanas administration was simple and inspired by the Mauryas. The King was the protector of the religion and had divine attributes. He possessed the qualities of ancient Gods. The Satavahana state was a monarchical system headed by a king who held centralized authority, but delegated various functions to a structured bureaucracy. The king was responsible for law, order, military command, tax collection, and religious patronage.

Administrative Divisions

The kingdom was divided into provinces, often referred to as Aharas. These were further divided into villages and townships. Each level had officials responsible for administration, tax collection, record-keeping, and local justice. Two feudatories viz. Mahasenapati and Mahataravalara were created in the Satavahana Dynasty.

Officials and Their Roles

Satavahana administration included a variety of officials who assisted the king in governance. These roles are known primarily from inscriptions found in caves, temples, and donative records.

ü Mahamatras

High-ranking officials responsible for supervising major administrative departments. Their roles likely included oversight of revenue, justice, and religious grants.

ü Amatyas

These were important administrative officers, possibly in charge of districts or provinces (aharas).

ü Bhandagarika

Superintendent of stores and granaries. He ensured the management and safety of state stockpiles, possibly for both civil and military use.

ü Heranika

Treasurer of the kingdom, responsible for managing state revenues, issuing funds, and maintaining financial accounts.

ü Mahasenapati

Commander-in-chief of the military forces. This official had supreme control over the army and possibly local garrisons and war logistics.

ü Mahattaraka

Chamberlain in charge of the royal household and court protocol. Managed the internal functioning of the palace and royal affairs.

ü Nibandhakara

Official responsible for drafting and maintaining state records. Likely involved in preparing inscriptions, grants, and legal documents.

ü Prathiharas & Dutas

These served as gatekeepers and messengers, respectively. Dutas acted as royal envoys, delivering messages and maintaining communication within the empire.

ü Ganapaka

An accountant in charge of maintaining state financial records, accounts, and transaction logs.

ü Lekhaka

Officer responsible for document registration, ensuring that legal and administrative texts were correctly recorded and archived.

ü Pattikapalaka

Director of archives. This official was responsible for maintaining official state documents, including land grants and royal edicts.

ü Uparakshita

An official who oversaw the construction of caves and monasteries for Buddhist monks. Often mentioned in donative inscriptions, particularly in western India.

ü Gaulmikas

Gaulmikas were administrators of the rural areas under the Satavahanas.

Governance Structure

The central government operated from the capital but delegated authority to provincial and local administrators. Many of these officials had hereditary posts, but their positions were confirmed by the king. Administrative coordination was crucial to managing a large and economically diverse empire.

Military Administration

Besides the Mahasenapati, there were likely local commanders and militia units under the control of regional lords. The army included infantry, cavalry, and elephant corps, supported by state resources managed by officials like the Heranika and Bhandagarika.

Revenue and Records

The revenue system was agrarian, with taxes often collected in kind (grain, produce, etc.). Accurate records were vital, managed by the Ganapaka, Lekhaka, and Pattikapalaka. Trade routes and ports also contributed customs revenue.

Decentralization and Autonomy

While the king held ultimate authority, the system showed signs of decentralized governance, especially in the Aharas. Feudal lords and officials enjoyed considerable autonomy but were expected to maintain loyalty and pay tribute to the crown.

Important Notes on Satavahana Society

Matrilineal Traces in a Patriarchal Society

Though the Satavahana society was predominantly patriarchal, many kings included their mother’s name in their titles (e.g., Gautamiputra Satakarni). This indicates a unique emphasis on maternal lineage, which was uncommon in other ancient Indian dynasties.

Tax System Rooted in Trust

Taxes were commonly collected in kind rather than cash, especially from farmers. The state relied heavily on merchants and guilds for significant revenue.

Masters of Inland Trade and Logistics

The Satavahanas controlled key inland trade routes linking the east and west coasts of India. They developed infrastructure such as rest houses for traders and monks. Important ports like Kalyan, Sopara, and Bharuch facilitated trade with the Roman Empire and beyond.

Guilds as Proto-Corporate Entities

• During the Satavahana period, economic activity was organized around Srenis (guilds), where individuals following the same profession formed collectives for mutual benefit and regulation.
• The chief or leader of each Sreni was called the Shresthi, and this position was crucial for overall functioning and decision-making.
• The term “Shreni-Dharma” referred to the regulations and ethical codes governing the guilds’ conduct and their internal matters.

Buddhism and Brahmanism Coexisted Peacefully

While the Satavahanas practiced Vedic traditions, they were also patrons of Buddhism. They supported the construction of important Buddhist cave complexes such as Ajanta, Nasik, Karla, and Kanheri, reflecting religious tolerance and cultural diversity.

Coins Featuring Ships, Elephants, and Trees

Satavahana coins often bore symbols of economic and cultural significance such as ships, elephants, and sacred trees. They used Prakrit language and Brahmi script, which made them accessible to the general population.

Women Held Land and Commissioned Monuments

Inscriptions reveal that women, including nuns, merchants, and noblewomen, made donations to religious institutions and sometimes owned land or businesses. For example, Nanaghat inscription was issued by Naganika, wife of Satkarni-I.

A Rich Theatrical and Musical Life

Court and temple activities likely included performances of music and drama. Literary references indicate the presence of a thriving cultural scene that blended Sanskrit and local traditions.

Education Centers Linked with Trade Routes

Buddhist monasteries along trade routes also functioned as educational centers. These institutions preserved Prakrit literature and Buddhist philosophy and attracted scholars from different regions.

Decentralized but Efficient Governance

The Satavahana political structure was partly feudal. Local governance was handled by officials like mahabhojas and maharathis, who often held hereditary positions but were still accountable to the central authority.

Global Trade Links: Roman, Persian, and Southeast Asian

The Satavahanas engaged in extensive trade with the Roman Empire, Persia, and Southeast Asia. Indian exports included cotton, pearls, muslin, and spices. Roman wine jars and coins found at Indian ports attest to these connections.

Artistic Syncretism

Satavahana art from sites like Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda combined Indian themes with Greco-Roman stylistic elements. Narrative friezes and lotus medallions reflect a high level of artistic development and cultural fusion.

Kushana Empire

As per the Chinese sources, the Kushanas (mentioned in Chinese texts as Guishuang) were one of the 5 tribes of Yueh-Chi or Yuezhi. Kushanas were also known as Tocharians. They were nomadic tribes and easternmost speakers of the Indo-Europeans Languages which were called “Tocharian languages”. Their origin is connected to China and also Central Asia. The modern Xiniang and Gansu of China are places where these tribes thrived before 2nd century AD. They were driven out by Xiongnu in around 170 BC. The Construction of the Chinese wall was a big factor of their moving away from the Chinese regions and they moved towards west and south. Important Kushana Kings are briefed here:

Kujula Kadphises (AD 30-AD 80)

• Kujula Kadphises was the first Yueh Chi chief who crossed the Hindukush Mountains and laid down the foundation of the Kushana Empire.
• He established himself in Kabul and Kashmir and is credited for defeat of Last Greek Kings.
• He adopted the epithet of Dharma-thida.
• Another epithet adopted by Kujala Kadphises was Sachdharmathida, which is coterminous with SatyaDharma Sthitha.
• Both of the above epithets show that he was interested in both Buddhism as well as Shivaite.

Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (AD 80 -AD 95)

• Vima Taktu or Sadashkana was / were son/ sons of Kujula Kadphises and it is not sure who among them ruled after Kujula Kadphises or whether this refered to a single person.
• He is considered to be the predecessor of Vima Kadphises as well as Kanishka-I.
• He is credited for expansion of Kushana Power into the North West of India.

Vima Kadphises: (AD 95-AD 127)

• The Rabatak inscription is written on a rock in the Bactrian language and the Greek script. It was found in 1993 at Rabatak, in Afghanistan.
• This inscription mentions that Vima Kadphises was son of Vima Takto and the father of Kanishka.
• He was one of the most important kings of the Kushana Empire who is best known for issuing large number of Gold Coins.
• Vima Kadphises was probably the first to introduce the Gold Coins in Indiain addition to the Copper and Silver coins.
• This testifies the prosperity of the Kushana Empire.
• Vima is also known to have maintained the Silk Route and trade with all sides including the China, Alexandria, and Roman Empire.

Kanishka I

Kanishka-I was the most power ruler of the Kushana Empire and is known for his military prowess. His main capital was Purushpura (Peshawar) and regional capitals were Taxila (Pakistan) , Begram (Afghanistan) and Mathura (India).

• His date of accession is disputed. However, most sources agree that Kanishka was the founder of the Shaka Era of AD 78.
• This has been mentioned as Saka kala or Saka Nripa kala, probably because he was thought to be a Shaka.
• Under Kanishka, Kushana Empire reached its climax and it extended from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan to Mathura and Kashmir.
• As per the Tibetan Sources, Kanishka is considered to have conflicted with the Pataliputra and Saket and had taken Aśvaghosa, the Buddhist Monk to Purushpura.
• A city kanishkpur in Kashmir is also connected to Kanishka.
• Kanishka conflicted with Chinese general of King Han Ho-ti, the emperor of Han Dynasty and defeated him in second attempt.
• He is also known to have subjugated the rulers of Khotan, Yarkand etc. and is considered to have established a great kingdom only after the Mauryas in India.
• He was a patron of Buddhism and convened the 4th Buddhist council in the Kundalvana of Kashmir (or may be in Jalandhar) in 78 AD.
• This council was headed by Vasumitra and it marked the collection of Buddhist texts and engraving of the commentaries on Copper sheets.
• Some scholars are of the view that the Abhidhama Mahavishasawas prepared in the 4th Buddhist council.
• Some of the scholars in the Court of Kanishka were Parsva, Vasumitra, Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Charaka and Mathara.
• Charaka has been called the Court Physician of Kanishka, though it is very much disputed.
• Sushruta who wrote Sushruta Samhita has also been connected to Kanishka.

It was Kanishka’s time when Buddhism got divided between the Hinayana and Mahayana.

Vāsishka

• Kanishka-I was succeeded by Vāsishka, who had a short reign who is identified with the Vaskushana, Vajheska, Jushka in difefrent sources. Jushkapura near modern Zukar was a city founded by him.

Kushana Administration and Life

• The Kings of the Kushana Empire had assumed eloquent titles such as Maharaj, Rajatiraj (King of Kings) etc.
• One of the successors of Kanishka was Vasudeva who is considered to be a Shiva worshipper and the figures of Shiva is found on his coins had assumed the title Shaono Shao Vasudeo Kushano.
• These titles were adopted from their predecessors Shakas and appeared later in coins of all Kushana Kings and inscriptions.

Impact of Kushanas on Art and Culture

• Kushanas are considered to be the great patrons of art.
• Two schools, viz. Mathura School of Art and Gandhara School of Art flourished in the Kushana Era.
• Kushana had a cultural influence of the Hellenistic Greeks and this impact is seen these schools of arts as well.

Kushana Empire : Some Important Points

• The great stupa of the Purushpura was not built on direction of the above mentioned kings but was built on direction of Agesilaos.
• The Cap, Boot and helmet was introduced in India by the central Asian Tribes.
• Kushanas (Yueh Chi Tribe) is considered to have conducted the Horse trade by sea with the Koying kingdom of modern Malaysia.
• Largest number of copper coins was issued by the Kushanas.
• Charsada and Taxila were the karvan cities in Post Maurya Era.
• Asvaghosa was the first Dramatist who used Sanskrit in composing the plays.
• Sindoor (Vermillion) and Bamboo was introduced in India by Chinese traders.
• India was known as Shen-tu in the early Chinese texts.
• The works of Aśvaghosa were Buddhacharita, Mahalankara, Saundaranandakavya (Saudarananda), Chandistrotra, Vajrasuchi.
• Sun God has been depicted on the coins of Kanishka-1 and Vāsishka
• Kujala Kadphises and Kanishka-I adopted and patronized the Buddhism, but Vima Kadphises adopted Shaivism and was a Shiva Devotee.
• The 4 important schools of Jainism viz. Kottaka, Varana, Aryayudikiya and vesavadiya have been mentioned in the Epigraphic Records of the Kushana Period.