Reasons for emergence of new religions

• Shift from pastoral to agrarian economy and rise in trade; Vaishyas (third Varna) supported Jainism and Buddhism.
• Caste rigidity, low status of Shudras and women caused discontent.
• Animal sacrifices clashed with agrarian values.
• Vedic religion had complex rituals, Brahmin dominance, and superstitions; new religions opposed Brahmin authority.
• Sanskrit lost appeal; Prakrit was widely spoken.
• Jainism predates Buddhism (founded by first Tirthankara Rishabhanatha ) but was revived by Mahavira; its origins are unknown.

About Mahavira

• Mahavira, also known as Vardhamana, Vira, Sanmati, Ativira, Gnatputra (Tamil texts), and Nigantha Nātaputta (Pali canon), was the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.
• Born in 599 BC in Kundagrama (Muzaffarpur, Bihar), he was the son of King Siddartha (Gyatrika Kshatriyas) and Queen Trishala (Licchhavi princess, sister of ruler Chetak).
• His gotra was Kashyapa. The family was called Jnatri in Sanskrit and Naata in Prakrit; male members were Jnatriputras or Naataputtas.
• At 30, he renounced royal life, became an ascetic, and meditated for 12 years before attaining Kevalya Gyana. He spent the rest of his life preaching and attained Nirvana at 72 in Pavapuri (now Nalanda district).
• Shwetambara tradition says he married Yasoda and had a daughter, Priyadarsana (Anojja), who wed his disciple Jamali. Digambara tradition holds he remained unmarried.

Jain Philosophy

• Jainism, like Buddhism is non-theistic. It does not acknowledge existence of a supreme divine creator.This is different from Vedic religion which is monotheistic and believes in existence of a divine creator of this universe.

Nine Tattvas (Truths)

1. Jiva (Soul): Apart from non-belief in a supreme divine creator, another remarking feature of Jain philosophy is that it believes in independent existence of soul and matter. The soul or Jiva is the conscious substance which is different in different humans and animals. The number of Jivas is infinite. Soul is engaged in worldly affairs good or bad karma and takes successive births as per the stock of its karma. Thus, it is the Jiva which enjoys the fruits of karma and thus Jiva is also called Bhokta.
2. Non-soul (Ajiva): Ajiva is the opposite of jiva comprising of dharma, adharma, akash, pudgala and kala substances, of these, the first three (medium of motion, medium of rest, space or medium of accommodation are formless (amurta) and indivisible wholes. The fourth substance matter is defined as what is possessed of the qualities of touch, taste, colour and smell. Time is atomic in dimension and the kala atoms pervade the whole cosmic space.
3. Punya: Punya is the consequence of good deeds. There are nine ways to it.
4. Papa: Papa is consequence of bad deeds. Papa is major factor that results in bondage of Jiva. Injury or harm to other living beings is one of the most heinous papa in Jainism.
5. Asrava {Influx of Karma}: Asrava denotes the inflow of karmic matter by the soul. Just as water flows into a boat through a hole, so the karmic matter flows through asrava into the soul. The nature of activity is shubha (meritorious) or ashubha (demeritorious). The principle “like causes produce like results” is accepted as a determining feature of the Jain doctrine of karma.
6. Samvara (stoppage of karmic matter): Samvara means stopping, controlling or ceasing of inflow of karmic matter into the soul. Smavara is achieved through self control, restrained movement, virtues, contemplation and monastic conduct.
7. Bandha (bondage): Bandha is the union of jiva with pudgala (matter) or soul with non-soul particles. The matter is determined by five causes, namely wrong belief, attachment, carelessness, passions and activity.
8. Nirjara (shedding the karmic matter): Nirjara means shedding off, drying up or destruction. Nirjara is to destroy and burn up accumulated karma.
9. Moksha (liberation): Moksha is the supreme stage of spiritual attainment when all causes of bondage having been uprooted, the soul is freed from karmic matter. It is a stage of peace, perfect faith, perfect knowledge, and a stage of having achieved siddhi.

Triratna and Five Mahavratas

• Moksha is attained though right faith, right knowledge and right conduct (Tri-ratna). For the perfection of right conduct, five kind of vows (Mahavratas) recommended viz. Non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), non-stealing (asteya), chastity (brahmacharya) and no greed (aparigraha).

Summary of Jainism Basic Tenet

• Every living being has a soul. Every soul is potentially divine, with innate qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss. However, these qualities are masked by its karmas.
• Therefore, Jains think of every living being as themselves, harming no one and be kind to all living beings. This is the basis of non-violence in Jainism. Every soul is born as a celestial, human, sub-human or hellish being according to its own karmas.
• Every soul is the architect of its own life, here or hereafter. When a soul is freed from karmas, it becomes free and attains divine consciousness, experiencing infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss.

Jainism and Anekantavad

One important contribution of Jainism is the doctrine of Anekantavad (non-absolutism). As per this, reality can be examined from many standpoints. The same thing can be described from at least seven standpoints and all can be equally true. This school promotes tolerance of contrary opinions among the theologists and philosophers.

Blind Men and Elephant Story

The story commonly used to illustrate Anekantavada is the parable of the blind men and the elephant. A group of blind men hears about a new animal in town, an elephant, but has no idea what it is like. Each man touches a different part of the elephant and describes it based on their limited experience.

• The man who touches the trunk says it’s like a snake or a pipe.
• The one who touches the ear describes it as a fan.
• The person who feels a leg perceives it as a pillar.
• Another who touches the back thinks it’s like a throne.

These men then argue, each believing their description is the absolute truth. A wise person (or another man) observes their dispute and explains that while each is correct in what they experienced, none have the complete picture. The true nature of the elephant is a synthesis of all their partial perceptions. This story shows that individual perspectives, though true from their limited viewpoint, fail to grasp the complete reality of a complex entity like an elephant. The Anekantavada Philosophy believes that:

• Reality is multifaceted: No single perspective can capture the entirety of truth or reality.
• Tolerance and understanding: It encourages recognizing that differing viewpoints can hold partial truths, promoting empathy and intellectual humility.
• Rejection of dogmatism: Anekantavada emphasizes a non-absolutist approach to knowledge and beliefs, encouraging open-mindedness and consideration of various perspectives.

Six Dravyas of Jain Cosmology

As per Jain theory, the world is not created, maintained, or destroyed by a supreme, divine deity but functions according to the universal law of cyclic existence. It is made of six dravyas as follows:

1. Jiva and Ajiva: All living and Non-living substances.
2. Pudagala: This means matter
3. Dharma-Tattva: This means Principle of Motion
4. Adharma tattva: This means principle of Rest
5. Akasa: This means space
6. Kala: This means time.

As per Jainism, Samsāra or worldly life is characterized by continuous rebirths and reincarnations, suffering and misery and hence is worth renunciation. Moksa is the only liberation from Samsāra.

Universal Truth or Kevalya Gyana

Jain doctrine is established upon undying, universal truths. Kevalya Gyana is absolute knowledge and is the highest form of knowledge that a soul can attain. A person who has attained Kevala Gyana is called a Kevalin. To get a status of a Jina, attaining Kevalagyana is required first.

Digamnara and Swetwambara

Jain Samgha split in Maurya era in Digambara and Swetambara. Around 4th century BCE, a 12-year famine led to division in the Jain sangha. Acharya Sivabhuti, deviating from canon, promoted nudity—leading to the Digambara sect. The Śvetāmbara sect retained canonical texts and clothed monasticism.

Comparison Table: Digambara vs. Śvetāmbara

Digambara (Sky-clad)	Śvetāmbara (White-clad)
monks practice complete nudity	monks and nuns wear white robes
Women must be reborn as men to attain moksha	Women can attain moksha in current life
Mahavira and Parshvanatha were celibate	Mahavira married Yashoda; Parshvanatha married Prabhavati
19th Tirthankara (Mallinatha) believed to be male	Believed to be female
Idols are Plain, unadorned statues	Idols are decorated and lifelike idols
Reject authority of Śvetāmbara Agamas	Accept Agamas compiled at Vallabhi Council
Key texts are Samayasara, Pravachansara (Kundakunda)	Key texts are Agamas, Kalpa Sūtra, Uttaradhyayana Sutra
Same core beliefs; karma binds due to passions and ignorance	Same; karma can be shed through right conduct
Emphasis on strict asceticism, nudity, and self-control for Moksha	Emphasis on right faith, knowledge, and conduct without nudity requirement for Moksha.
Fewer rituals	More ritualistic
Reject flower offerings, lamps, cooked food in worship	Accept rituals involving idols, offerings, and lamps
Female Sadhvis are rare, called āryikā, wear clothes because women can not attain Moksha.	Large numbers of Sadhvi’s (nuns); female monastics outnumber males in some orders
Notable subsects are Mula Sangh, Kashtha Sangh, Terapanth and Taranpanth	Notable subsects are Murtipujaka, Sthanakvasi, Terapanth (Śvetāmbara)
Only Digambara monks can attain moksha in this life	Liberation is accessible to all through proper conduct
Mouth covering Not practiced	Mouth covering practiced by some (esp. Sthanakvasis) to avoid harming small organisms

Digambara Orders

1. Mula Sangh – Root tradition associated with Acharya Kundakunda.
   • Divided into Nandi, Sena, Deva, and Simha Ganas.
2. Kashtha Sangh – North Indian branch linked to Lohacharya.
   • Supported by Agrawal Jains.
3. Terapanth – Reformist sect (17th century), rejected Bhattaraka authority and rituals like flower use.
4. Taranpanth – Founded by Taran Svami (1505), non-idolatrous, scripture-focused.

Śvetāmbara Orders

• Murtipujaka – Idol-worshiping branch.
• Sthānakavāsī – Founded by Lavaji (~1653), anti-idolatry
• Terapanth (Śvetāmbara) – Founded by Acharya Bhikshu in 1760, reformist and non-idolatrous.

Mula Sangh (Digambara)

Mula Sangh, meaning “Root Order,” is the oldest Digambara Jain monastic order, associated with Acharya Kundakunda, author of Samayasara and Pravachanasara. Mentioned around 430 CE, it was divided by Acharya Arhadbali into four ganas: Nandi, Sena, Deva, Simha. The Bhattarakas of Shravanabelagola, Mudabidri, and Humbaj belong to the Nandi Gana. It preserved scriptures and religious life when wandering monks declined. Mula Sangh was influential in South and Central India. Note: Bhaṭṭāraka is a priest who heads the Digambara Jain institutions. He is responsible for training scholars, maintenance of libraries, managing endowments, presiding over installation ceremonies and running Jain institutions

Kashtha Sangh (Digambara)

Kashtha Sangh flourished in North and Western India. Supported by Agrawal Jains, it declined over time but left major influence in Delhi, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.

Terapanth (Digambara)

Terapanth was a 17th-century reformist Digambara sect founded by Amra Bhaunsa Godika and Jodhraj Godika in Jaipur. It rejected 13 rituals like use of flowers, cooked food, lamps, and worship of minor deities. It opposed Bhattaraka authority, promoted scriptural purity, and split Digambaras into Terapanthi and Bispanthi. Strong in North India, it emphasized direct Tirthankara worship and religious austerity.

Taranpanth (Digambara)

Founded by Taran Svami in 1505 CE (Bundelkhand), Taranpanth is a non-idolatrous Digambara sect. Followers worship scriptures like Chadmastha Vani, not idols, in Chaityalayas. Osho was born in a Taranpanthi family. Mainly found in Madhya Pradesh, the sect values spiritual autonomy over ritualism.

Murtipujaka (Śvetāmbara)

Murtipujaka is the largest Śvetāmbara sect, known for idol worship and temple rituals. Followers worship decorated idols and perform puja, abhisheka, and festivals. Temples like Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu) were built under their influence. Key reformers include Acharya Vijayanand Suri and Acharya Rajendrasuri. They wear white robes and do not cover their mouths. The sect is dominant in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Sthānakavāsī (Śvetāmbara)

Sthānakavāsī emerged in 1653 CE, founded by Lavaji. It opposes idol worship, temples, and ritualism. Monks and nuns wear white, cover their mouths with muhapatti, and meet in Sthānaks (prayer halls). Prominent in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, they uphold strict discipline and spiritual simplicity.

Terapanth (Śvetāmbara)

Founded in 1760 CE by Acharya Bhikshu at Kelwa, Rajasthan, Śvetāmbara Terapanth is a reformist, non-idolatrous sect. Bhikshu broke from Sthānakavāsī over monastic discipline. The sect is uniquely led by a single Acharya, currently overseeing Terapanth Sabha, Jain Vishva Bharati, and Anuvrat Movement. Monks wear white and cover their mouths.

Other Facts on Jainism

Jain Symbol

The Jain emblem was adopted in 1975 to mark the 2500th Nirvana anniversary of Lord Mahavira. It symbolizes Jain values and is widely used in religious publications and events to promote cultural identity and devotion.

Navakar Mantra

The Navakar Mantra is Jainism’s main prayer, offering respect to:

• Arihantas (liberated souls in human form)
• Siddhas (fully liberated souls)
• Acharyas, Upadhyayas, and monks. It asks for no material gains but inspires spiritual growth and reminds followers of the goal of moksha (liberation).

Jain Literature

Jain scriptures are called Agamas, based on Mahavira’s teachings, totaling 45 canonical texts.

Royal Patrons of Jainism

• Samprati (Ashoka’s grandson)
• King Kharavela of Orissa (built Jain rock-cut caves)
• Chalukyas, Ganga, Kadamba, Rashtrakuta dynasties
• Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta king, became Jain monk)
• Samantabhadra preached in Kanchi
• Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu (11th–13th c.) built by Chalukya rulers

Other Notable Trivias

• The Jain religion professes peace and non-violence and this was the major reason that mercantile community was attractedtowards this religion.
• Chandragupta Maurya had abdicated his throne towards the end of his life and became an ascetic under the Jain saint Bhadrabahu. He migrated to Karnataka and spent his ending days at sallekhana at Shravanabelagola. Bhadrabahu Cave is the place where he is said to have died by fasting. Bhadrabahu had propagated Jainism in South India.
• The metaphysical thoughts of Jainism are linked to Samkhya Philosophy.
• There are five Jain caves at Ellora, which belong to the ninth and tenth centuries and they all belong to the Digambara sect. Cave 32 at Ellora is called Indra Sabha and it is a Jain Cave. Tiger cave at Udayagiri, and Sittannavasala Cave at Padukottai are Jain caves only.
• Death through gradual starvation at the end of one’s natural life is called ‘Santhara’. Among Jains it is a means to attain salvation and not suicide. The Jains profess a vast difference between suicide and Santhara. Suicide is committed in a fit of anger or depression while the decision to observe Santhara is taken with a calm mind.
• Neminath or Arishtnemi was a Jain Tirthankar who was considered to be a kinsman of Lord Krishna.
• 11 close disciples of Mahavira are called Ganadhara. The Jain Samgha was made up of 11 Ganadharas.
• Virasena, Mahaviracharya, Hemachandra and Mahendra Suri were well known Jain Mathematicians.
• 4 Sankalpas viz. Satya, Ahimsa, Astey and Aparigraha were adopted and preached by Parshvanth.

About Gautam Buddha

The Buddhavamsa mentions 29 Buddhas—27 before Gautama, Gautama himself, and Maitreya, the future Buddha. In the current Kalpa, the five Buddhas are Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana, Kassapa, Gautama, and Maitreya. Gautama Buddha, born Siddhartha in Lumbini (Nepal) in 563 BCE, was the son of Shuddodhana (Shakya chief) and Mahamaya (Devadaha princess). Raised in Kapilavastu by Prajapati Gautami after his mother’s death. His birth is marked as Vesaka/Buddha Purnima (Vaishaka, Apr-May). He married Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula. At 29, Siddhartha left home (Great Departure/Mahabhinishkramana) seeking a path beyond suffering. After learning under Allara and Udaka, and practicing extreme austerity, he chose the Middle Path. At 35, meditating under a Pipal tree at Bodh Gaya (Niranjana river), he attained enlightenment, becoming Shakyamuni Buddha. His first sermon, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, was delivered at Deer Park in Sarnath, expounding the Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path. He founded the Triratna: Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha. He attained parinirvana at Kushinagar, aged 80.

Symbols associated with Buddha’s Life

• Buddha’s birth : Lotus and Bull
• The Great Departure (Mahabhinishkramana) : Horse
• Enlightenment : Bodhee tree {Peepal}
• First sermon (Dhammachakraparivartana) : Wheel
• Death (Parinirvana) : Stupa

Buddhist Philosophy

Core Principles of Buddhism

• Non-theistic: Buddhism does not recognize a creator god.
• Focuses on liberation from suffering (dukkha) and attainment of Nirvana through ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom.

Comparison: Buddhism vs. Jainism

Aspect	Buddhism	Jainism
God/Creator	Non-theistic; denies creator god	Non-theistic; denies creator god
Soul (Atman/Jiva)	Denies permanent soul (Called Anatta doctrine)	Believes in eternal, individual soul (Jiva)
Liberation	Cessation of suffering and rebirth (Nirvana)	Liberation of soul from karma (Moksha)
Austerity	Rejects extreme austerity (follow middle path); advocates moderation	Emphasizes extreme austerity, especially in Digambara sect
Non-violence (Ahimsa)	Important but not absolute	Central principle; absolute non-violence
View on Women	Can attain Nirvana	Digambaras: No; Śvetāmbaras: Yes
Doctrine of Change	Anicca (impermanence) is central	Believes in permanence of soul; change applies to body
Monastic Code	Vinaya Pitaka (rules for monks and nuns)	Different monastic rules
Main Scriptures	Tripitaka (Pali Canon)	Agamas (Śvetāmbara); lost texts (Digambara)
Trinity/Refuge	Triratna: Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha	Triratna: Jina, Dharma, Sangha
Language of Early Texts	Mainly Pali	Mainly Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi, etc.)

The Four Noble Truths (Chattari Ariya Saccani)

1. Dukkha – Life is full of suffering.
2. Samudaya – There is a cause of suffering (craving).
3. Nirodha – Suffering can be ended (cessation or nirvana).
4. Magga – There is a path to end suffering (Noble Eightfold Path).

The Noble Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

Grouped into 3 categories:

• Wisdom (Prajna)

1. Right View
2. Right Intention

• Ethical Conduct (Sila)

1. Right Speech
2. Right Action
3. Right Livelihood

• Mental Discipline (Samadhi)

1. Right Effort
2. Right Mindfulness
3. Right Concentration

Anatta (No-Self Doctrine)

Buddhism denies the existence of a permanent, unchanging soul (Atman), a key departure from Hindu thought. Anatta distinguishes Buddhism from Jainism and Hinduism which believe in a soul (Jiva/Atman).

• The “self” is a conventional label for a collection of constantly changing processes called the Five Aggregates (Skandhas).
• Clinging to the idea of a self leads to attachment, which causes suffering.
• Realizing Anatta leads to non-attachment and freedom.

The core philosophy is the “I am nothing but a bundle of impermanent elements.”

Skandhas (Five Aggregates)

Buddhism teaches that a person is not a soul or self, but a bundle of five aggregates (Skandhas) that are constantly changing:

1. Rupa (Form) – Physical body and material aspects
2. Vedana (Feeling) – Sensations (pleasant, unpleasant, neutral)
3. Sanna (Perception) – Recognition and identification
4. Sankhara (Mental Formations) – Thoughts, intentions, emotions
5. Vinnana (Consciousness) – Awareness of sensory and mental objects

Key idea is that no permanent “self” exists; we are just a collection of changing processes. Realizing this leads to Anatta and detachment. 📌 Example: When you see a flower, all five skandhas are at work: your eyes (rupa), sensation (vedana), recognition (sanna), reaction (sankhara), and awareness (vinnana).

Anicca (Impermanence)

All conditioned phenomena are transient — arising and passing away. Nothing remains fixed.

• Buddha taught that everything — thoughts, emotions, relationships, life itself — is temporary.
• Even good experiences are Dukkha because they are impermanent and cannot satisfy us permanently.

📌 Example: A happy moment fades, youth ages, and even mountains erode — these truths point to Anicca.

Dukkha (Suffering or Unsatisfactoriness)

Apart from suffering, Dukkha also includes imperfection, anxiety, and dissatisfaction. Here are some types of Dukkha:

• Dukkha-dukkha – physical pain
• Viparinama-dukkha – suffering from change
• Sankhara-dukkha – suffering from conditioned existence

📌 Example: Even a millionaire may feel Dukkha if they worry about losing wealth. Understanding Dukkha is not pessimism but a realistic view, leading to spiritual growth.

Paticca Samuppada (Dependent Origination)

This is the law of conditionality — all things arise due to causes and cease when causes cease.

• Explains cycle of rebirth (Samsara) in 12 links:Ignorance → Mental Formations → Consciousness → Name & Form → Sense Bases → Contact → Feeling → Craving → Clinging → Becoming → Birth → Aging & Death

📌 Example: Craving leads to clinging and ultimately to rebirth. 📌 Purpose: By breaking the chain (especially craving and ignorance), one breaks the cycle of rebirth.

Karma (Action and Result)

Karma in Buddhism is intentional action — physical, verbal, or mental. Its result (vipaka) can be immediate or in future births.

• Good karma: generosity, compassion, truthfulness.
• Bad karma: killing, lying, greed, hate.

📌 Distinct from Jainism: In Buddhism, karma is non-material and determined by intention, not mere action. 📌 Example: Helping others selflessly creates merit; harming out of greed creates negative karma.

Samsara (Cycle of Rebirth)

Refers to the continuous cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth fueled by karma and ignorance.

• Liberation (Nirvana) is escape from this cycle.
• A being can be reborn as human, animal, hungry ghost, asura, deva, or in hell realms based on karma.

📌 Example: A person who lies repeatedly may be reborn in a lower realm; a virtuous one may be reborn in a higher one or attain Nirvana.

Nirvana (Liberation)

Nirvana is the ultimate goal in Buddhism — the extinction of desire, hatred, and delusion, resulting in complete liberation from rebirth and suffering.

• It is unconditioned, beyond space and time.
• Buddha did not describe it in positive terms, only by what it is not (freedom from suffering, defilements, rebirth).

📌 Example: A fire goes out when its fuel is exhausted — Nirvana is like that extinction of the “fires” of craving.

Triratna (Three Jewels)

The Three Refuges in which every Buddhist takes shelter:

• Buddha – the enlightened teacher and guide
• Dhamma – his teachings, path to liberation
• Sangha – the community of monks and nuns who preserve and practice the Dhamma

Buddhists recite, “I take refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha.” Represents the spiritual foundation of Buddhist life — teacher, path, and support system.

Eight Fold Path or Astangika marg

• The eight fold path was recommended to eliminate the human misery. It comprises of three basic divisions of wisdom (Pragya Skanda), ethical conduct (Sheel Skanda) and meditation (Samadhi Skanda).

Two Most Important Questions focused by Buddha

• Gautama Buddha is known to have concentrated on two most important questions about existence. These were (1) How can we minimize suffering-both our own and that of others? and (2) How can we attain inner peace?

Buddha’s analogy to a Great Physician

In the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha is often compared to a great physician, and his teachings are compared to medicine. The teachings on the four noble truths in particular are related to a medical diagnosis, as follows:

• Dukkha: identifying the illness and the nature of the illness (the diagnosis)
• Dukkha Samudaya: identifying the causes of the illness (the etiology)
• Dukkha Nirodha: identifying a cure for the illness (the prognosis)
• Magga: recommending a treatment for the illness that can bring about a cure (the prescription)

Sunyata (Emptiness)

Sunyata, or emptiness, is a central concept in Mahayana Buddhism, especially in the teachings of Nagarjuna.

• It means that all phenomena are empty of intrinsic or independent existence.
• Nothing exists by itself — everything is interdependent (linked to Pratitya Samutpada).
• This does not mean things don’t exist, but they exist conditionally, not inherently.

📌 Example: A table is “empty” — it exists only due to parts (wood, nails), effort, and perception. Take away the causes, and it disappears. 📌 Philosophical Impact: Sunyata refines the idea of Anatta and leads to non-attachment and compassion, seeing the world as interdependent and illusory.

Evolution of Buddhist Sects and Branches

📜 483 BCE: First Buddhist Council (Rajgir)

• Held after Buddha’s death under Ajatashatru, led by Mahakassapa
• Purpose: Compile Buddha’s teachings
• Vinaya by Upali, Sutta by Ananda
• No sectarian division yet

⚖️ 383 BCE: Second Buddhist Council (Vaishali)

• Under King Kalashoka
• Dispute over monastic discipline (Vinaya rules)
• Led to split into:
  • Sthaviravāda (conservatives – elders)
  • Mahāsāṅghika (liberals – majority)

📌 This marks the first major sectarian schism in Buddhism

📚 250 BCE: Third Buddhist Council (Pataliputra)

• Under Ashoka, led by Moggaliputta Tissa
• Purpose: Remove corrupt monks and heretical views
• Theravāda school formalized
• Missionary expansion to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, and South India
• Compilation of Kathavatthu (Abhidhamma text refuting other views)

🌍 1st Century BCE: Rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism

• Emerged from Mahāsāṅghika influences
• Introduced Bodhisattva ideal, Sunyata (Emptiness), and Compassion
• New texts: Prajnaparamita, Lotus Sutra, Avatamsaka
• Worship of Multiple Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
• Emphasized universal salvation

📌 Spread to China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam

🧘 1st–2nd Century CE: Rise of Important Mahāyāna Philosophies

• Madhyamaka School by Nagarjuna: Emptiness (Sunyata), middle path
• Yogachara School by Asanga & Vasubandhu: Consciousness-only (Cittamatra)
• Distinction between Nirmanakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Dharmakaya (Buddha bodies)

🔱 3rd–5th Century CE: Emergence of Vajrayāna (Tantric Buddhism)

• Emerged in India, especially in Bengal, Odisha, and later in Tibet
• Combined Mahayana philosophy with tantric rituals, mantras, mudras, mandalas
• Use of esoteric texts (Tantras)
• Aim: Rapid path to enlightenment in one lifetime

📌 Spread to Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, Nepal

🏯 1st–7th Century CE: Spread in East Asia

• China: Mahayana enters via Silk Route (1st century CE)
  • Schools: Chan (Zen), Tiantai, Pure Land
• Korea & Japan: Adopt Mahayana Buddhism, later evolve into Zen, Nichiren, and Pure Land traditions
• Translation of Sanskrit texts to Chinese under scholars like Kumarajiva

🗿 7th–8th Century CE: Establishment of Tibetan Buddhism

• Padmasambhava and Shantarakshita introduce Vajrayana to Tibet
• Development of Tibetan schools: Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, Gelug
• Dalai Lama becomes head of Gelug school

📉 8th–12th Century CE: Decline of Buddhism in India

• Revival of Hinduism (Bhakti Movement) and rise of Advaita Vedanta
• Loss of royal patronage
• Islamic invasions destroy monasteries (e.g., Nalanda, Vikramashila)
• Buddhism survives in pockets (e.g., Ladakh, Sikkim, Northeast)

🔁 19th–20th Century: Revival Movements

• Anagarika Dharmapala, B. R. Ambedkar lead modern revival
• Navayana Buddhism (Dalit Buddhism) introduced by Ambedkar in 1956
• Emphasis on social equality and justice.

Various Schools and Sects of Buddhism

Early Schools (Hinayana Sects)

Early Buddhism had multiple sects collectively known as Hinayana (“Lesser Vehicle”), although this term is now seen as pejorative. These were primarily focused on individual liberation (Arhat ideal).

1. Sthaviravāda (Elders’ School)

• Oldest known school; emphasized strict adherence to monastic discipline.
• Gave rise to Theravāda Buddhism.
• Based on Pali Canon (Tripitaka).

1. Mahāsāṅghika

• More liberal; emphasized community consensus and more flexible monastic rules.
• Believed in the superhuman nature of the Buddha.
• Influenced the Mahayana tradition

Theravāda Buddhism (“Teaching of the Elders”)

• Only surviving Hinayana
• Found in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia.
• Based on Pali Canon (Tipitaka): Vinaya, Sutta, Abhidhamma.
• Ideal figure: Arhat (one who achieves Nirvana by own effort).
• Focus on monastic discipline, Vipassana meditation, and strict adherence to Buddha’s original teachings.

📌 Significance: Oldest, most conservative form; preserves earliest form of Buddhist philosophy.

Mahāyāna Buddhism (“Great Vehicle”)

• Emerged around 1st century BCE – 1st century CE in India.
• Expanded the ideal from personal salvation to universal salvation.
• Introduced the concept of Bodhisattva – enlightened being who delays Nirvana to help others.
• Key texts: Prajnaparamita Sutra, Lotus Sutra, Lankavatara Sutra.
• Emphasized Sunyata (Emptiness) and compassion.
• Languages: Sanskrit, later Chinese and Tibetan.
• Spread to China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam.

Important Mahayana Schools:

School	Key Feature
Madhyamaka (Nagarjuna)	Teaches Sunyata (emptiness) – all phenomena lack inherent existence
Yogachara (Asanga, Vasubandhu)	Idealist philosophy; emphasizes mind-only (Cittamatra)
Pure Land (China, Japan)	Focus on devotion to Amitabha Buddha for rebirth in paradise
Zen (Chan) (China, Japan)	Emphasizes meditation (zazen), intuition over scripture
Tiantai (China)	Based on Lotus Sutra, teaches universal salvation
Nichiren (Japan)	Focuses on chanting “Nam Myoho Renge Kyo” (Lotus Sutra mantra)

Vajrayāna Buddhism (“Diamond Vehicle”)

• Emerged in 7th–8th century CE, mainly in Tibet and Himalayan regions.
• Combines Mahayana philosophy with tantric rituals, mantras, and visualizations.
• Goal: attain enlightenment swiftly, even in one lifetime.
• Key texts: Tantras, Hevajra Tantra, Guhyasamaja Tantra.
• Strong focus on guru devotion (guru is central to practice).
• Influences from Bon religion (pre-Buddhist Tibetan faith).

Major Vajrayāna Schools:

School	Region	Founder/Leader
Nyingma	Tibet	Oldest Tibetan school, based on Padmasambhava’s teachings
Kagyu	Tibet	Emphasizes meditation; led by Karmapa lineage
Sakya	Tibet	Known for scholarly works and rituals
Gelug	Tibet	Founded by Tsongkhapa; headed by the Dalai Lama

📌 Note: Vajrayāna incorporates mandalas, mudras, mantras, and deity yoga for transformative practices.

Zen and Pure Land (East Asia)

Zen (Japan/China – Chan)

• Rooted in Mahayana, brought to China as Chan.
• Emphasizes direct experience of enlightenment (satori) through meditation, not scriptures.
• Uses koans (riddles) to break logical thinking.

Pure Land

• Focuses on devotion to Amitabha Buddha.
• Goal: rebirth in Sukhavati (Pure Land) where enlightenment is easy.
• Most popular among lay followers in China and Japan.

Buddhist Literature

The prominent Buddhist canon includes Tripitaka or three baskets. Other Buddhist literature includes Jatakas, Mahavamsa, Bodhivamsa etc. AS brief description about the same is given below:

Tripitaka (Pali Canon)

The Tripitaka, meaning “Three Baskets,” is the most authoritative scripture in Theravāda Buddhism. Composed in Pali, it preserves the original teachings of the Buddha. It was compiled and passed down orally before being written down in Sri Lanka during the 1st century BCE. The three baskets are:

1. Sutta Pitaka – The Basket of Discourses

Contains the sermons and dialogues of the Buddha with monks, nuns, and lay followers. It deals with ethics, meditation, and wisdom.

• Sutta Pitaka is Divided into 5 Nikayas:
  • Digha Nikaya (Long Discourses)
  • Majjhima Nikaya (Middle-length Discourses)
  • Samyutta Nikaya (Thematic Groupings)
  • Anguttara Nikaya (Numerical Teachings)
  • Khuddaka Nikaya (Miscellaneous texts)
    • Udana
      • Part of the Khuddaka Nikaya.
      • Comprises inspired utterances (udanas) made by Buddha in poetic form.
      • Often given after an important event or realization.
      • Contains the parable of “Blind Men and the Elephant,” which teaches about partial knowledge and perception. (This is found in both Jainism and Buddhism)
    • Jataka Tales
      • Also part of Khuddaka Nikaya.
      • Narrates 547 stories of Buddha’s previous lives, where he was born as animals or humans and practiced virtues.
      • Illustrates karmic principles and the path of bodhisattva (enlightenment seeker).
      • Known as Jatakamala in Sanskrit; widely used in Buddhist art and temples.

1. Vinaya Pitaka – The Basket of Discipline

Outlines rules and ethical guidelines for the monastic Sangha (community of monks and nuns). It provides the framework for communal harmony, ordination, and monastic conduct.

• Divided into 3 sections:
  • 🔹 Suttavibhanga (Analysis of Rules)
    • Contains the Patimokkha, the core code of conduct:
      • 227 rules for monks (Bhikkhus)
      • 311 rules for nuns (Bhikkhunis)
    • Categorized into serious and minor offenses.
    • Emphasizes morality, restraint, and ethical living.
  • 🔹 Khandhaka (Groupings)
    • Split into two volumes:
      • Mahavagga
        • Describes Buddha’s enlightenment, his first sermons, the formation of the Sangha, and discipline.
      • Cullavagga
        • Contains details of the First and Second Buddhist Councils.
        • Explains rules related to Buddhist nuns, disputes, and disciplinary procedures.
      • 🔹 Parivara (Appendix/Summary)
        • The most recent addition to Vinaya Pitaka.
        • Offers analytical summaries, quizzes, and recaps of earlier rules.
        • Designed as a teaching tool for monastic training.
        • Possibly compiled after the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka.

1. Abhidhamma Pitaka – The Basket of Higher Doctrine

Focuses on philosophical and psychological analysis of the Buddha’s teachings. It systematizes doctrine into categories of consciousness, mental factors, matter, and ultimate realities.

• Intended for advanced practitioners and scholars.
• Emphasizes mind and mental processes, not stories or sermons.
• Considered to not directly originate from the Buddha, but from later Theravāda scholars.
  • Comprises 7 treatises:
    • Dhammasangani (Enumeration of Phenomena)
    • Vibhanga (Book of Analysis)
    • Dhatukatha (Discussion of Elements)
    • Puggalapannatti (Descriptions of Individuals)
    • Kathavatthu (Points of Controversy)
    • Yamaka (The Book of Pairs)
    • Patthana (Conditional Relations)
  • Not necessary to memorize all names, but understand that these analyze Buddhist reality from a doctrinal and logical angle.

Milinda Panha

Milinda Panha, meaning “Questions of Milinda,” records a dialogue between the Indo-Greek King Menander (Milinda) and the monk Nagasena. Composed between the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, originally in Sanskrit, only one surviving version exists in Pali. It was reprinted during the Sixth Buddhist Council (1954).

Dipavamsa

Dipavamsa, or “Chronicle of the Island,” is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka, compiled in the 3rd–4th century BCE during King Dhatusena’s reign. It mentions the arrival of the Bodhi Tree and relics, and Buddha’s visits to Kelaniya and Dighavapi. It’s a key Pali historical text.

Mahavamsa

Mahavamsa, meaning “Great Chronicle,” is an epic poem in Pali detailing the royal dynasties of Sri Lanka and India. Compiled in the 3rd–4th century BCE, it includes accounts of King Vijaya, Ashoka, and interactions with Seleucus and Alexander. Together with Dipavamsa and Culavamsa, it forms the world’s longest unbroken historical record.

Mahavastu

Mahavastu, meaning “Great Event,” is a mixed-language (Pali, Sanskrit, Prakrit) prose and verse work detailing miraculous events and past lives of Buddha. It provides insight into early Mahayana thought, even though it stems from a transitional phase of Buddhist literature.

Buddha Charita

Buddha Charita, composed by Ashvaghosha, is an epic Sanskrit poem on Buddha’s life. Translated into Chinese by Dharmaraksha in 420 CE, it portrays Buddha in classical literary style. Ashvaghosha also wrote Sariputra Prakaran, a drama about Buddha’s disciple Sariputra.

Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra

The Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra is a detailed Sanskrit compendium, attributed to Vasumitra, covering Buddhist doctrine and other Indian philosophies like Vaisheshika and Samkhya. It is associated with the Sarvāstivāda school and serves as a foundational Abhidhamma text.

Lalitavistara

Lalitavistara, meaning “Elaborate Narrative,” is a Sanskrit text depicting the life and miracles of Buddha. It is revered in Mahayana tradition and presents Buddha’s biography in an ornate literary form, blending mythology and philosophy.

Divyavadana

Divyavadana means “Divine Tales” and is a Sanskrit anthology of 38 stories. It includes the famous Asokavadana, which narrates the life and legends of Emperor Ashoka, reflecting the Mauryan and Shunga periods.

Udanavarga

Udanavarga is an early Sanskrit Buddhist text, similar to the Dhammapada. It contains verses attributed to the Buddha and his disciples, arranged by themes like desire, wisdom, and virtue. It was widely used in Central Asian Buddhism.

Udana

Udana, a Pali text from the Khuddaka Nikaya, consists of short inspired utterances by the Buddha, often following important events. It includes the famous story of the “Blind Men and the Elephant”, symbolizing partial perspectives on truth.

Bodhi Vamsa

Bodhi Vamsa is a mixed Sanskrit-Pali text composed by Upatissa under King Mahinda IV of Sri Lanka in the 10th century CE. It narrates the arrival of the Bodhi Tree’s branch in Sri Lanka and shares content with Mahavamsa.

Buddhist Scholars

The most important turning point in the expansion of Buddhism in India was the emergence and conversion of Asoka the Great (304–232 BC). He embraced Buddhism after 8 years of his coronation, he became a Buddhist and made it his state religion in 260 BC. He convened the third Buddhist council, which was held in Pataliputra in the presidency of Moggaliputta Tissa. He launched a vigorous campaign to propagate Buddhism which could be called Asoka’s Dhamma. Salient Notes on Some Buddhist Scholars are as follows:

Aśvaghosa

• Aśvaghosa is the Greatest Indian Poet Prior to Kalidasa. He is known as first Sanskrit Dramatist of the World. His epics rivalled the contemporary Ramayana. He wrote Buddhist texts in Classical Sanskrit.
• He was the court writer and religious advisor of Kushana king Kanishka. His main works are Buddhacharita, Mahalankara (Book of Glory) and Saundaranandakavya (details the life of Nanda).

Nagarjuna

• Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamika school of Mahayan Buddhism. He was contemporary of Satavahana King Gautamiputra. He was born in a Brahmin family in Nagarjunkonda in modern Andhra Pradesh.
• Due to his birth in Brahmin family and later conversion in Buddhism, it can be justified that his early work was in Sanskrit and not in Pali or Hybrid Sanskrit.
• Most important work is Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, which means Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way. His theory is also known as Shunyavad “emptiness”.

Asanga & Vasubandhu

• Both were half brothers and proponents of Yogacharaand Abhidhamma They were from modern Peshawar area in Pakistan. Most important work of Vasubandhu was Abhidharmamoksha.

Buddhaghosa

• Buddhaghosalived the 5th century AD and is known to be one of the greatest Pali scholar. His name means “Voice of Buddha”. Considered to be most important commentator of the Theravada.
• He is said to have gone to Sri Lanka from India’s Magadha and settled in Anuradhapura. The most important work is Visuddhimagga

Dignāga or Dinnaga

• He is considered to be the founder of Buddhist logic.

Candrakīrti or Chandrakirti

• He was a disciple of Nagarjuna and a scholar at the Nalanda University. Prasannapadā is his main work which means happy words or clear words

Dharmakirti

• Dharmakirti lived in 7th century AD and was primary theorist of Buddhist Sankya. He was a teacher at the Nalanda University and a poet. He has written Seven Treatises on Valid Cognition. He has been called “Kant of India’.

Buddhist Councils

Six Buddhist councils have been convened. Here is a short description:

First Buddhist Council: 400 BC

• Held soon after the mahaparinirvana of the Buddha, around 400 BC under the patronage of king Ajatshatru with the monk Mahakasyapa presiding, at Rajgriha, in the Sattapani Cave.
• The idea was to preserve Buddha’s teachings (Sutta) and rules for disciples (Vinaya). Ananda, one of the great disciples of Buddha recited Suttas and Upali, another disciple recited Vinaya. Abhidhamma Pitaka was also included.

Second Buddhist Council : 383 BC

• It was held in 383 BC. This idea of this council was to settle a dispute on Vinaya Pitaka, the code of discipline. The dispute was on 10 Points such as storing salt in horn, eating after midday, eating once and going to villages for alms, eating sour milk after one’s meal etc. It was not settles and Buddhism sects appeared for the first time. The subgroups were Sthaviravada, Mahasanghika and Sarvastivada. It was held at Vaishali under the patronage of King Kalasoka and the presidency of Sabakami.
• Sthaviravada followed the teachings of the elders and Mahasanghika became extinct later. Sthaviravada later continued till 3rd Buddhist council.

Third Buddhist Council: 250 BC

• Third Buddhist council was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra under the patronage of King Asoka and under the presidency of Moggaliputta Tissa.
• The teachings of Buddha which were under two baskets were now classified in 3 baskets as Abhidhamma Pitaka was established in this council, and they were known as “Tripitaka”. It also tried to settle all the disputes of Vinaya Pitaka.

Fourth Buddhist Council: 72AD

• The Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Kundalvana, Kashmir in 72 AD under the patronage of Kushan king Kanishka and the president of this council was Vasumitra, with Aśvaghosa as his deputy. This council distinctly divided the Buddhism into 2 sects Mahayan & Hinayan.
• Another Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Tambapanni (one name of Sri Lanka) at Aloka Lena under the patronage of Vattagamani-Abaya.However, most scholars agree that this was not eligible to be called a Council as it was not under a king but a local chieftain. This council is also related to the cruel policy of Vattagamani-Abaya towards Jains, as it is said that a jain premises was destroyed and a Mahayan temple was built.

Fifth Buddhist Council: 1871

• Fifth Buddhist Council took place in 1871 under the patronage of King Mindonin Mandalay, Burma. It was presided by Jagarabhivamsa, Narindabhidhaja, and Sumangalasami. The idea was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha and examine them systematically if any of them was dropped or altered.

Sixth Buddhist Council : 1954

• The Sixth Buddhist Council was held in 1954 in Burma at Kaba Aye, in Yangoon under the patronage of Burmese Government led by Prime Minister U Nu. Construction of Maha Passana Guha, which is very much similar to India’s Sattapanni Cave where the first Buddhist Council had been held, was authorized by the government.
• It was aimed to preserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya Pitaka. It held under the presidency of Mahasi Sayadaw and Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa. 500 buddhist scholars from 8 countries participated in this council.

Mahayana and Hinayana

A Yana is a vehicle. A Hinayana is a lesser vehicle while a Mahayana is a Great vehicle.

Hinayana

• The other names of Hinayana are: Deficient Vehicle, Abandoned Vehicle or Defective Vehicle.
• It believes in the original teaching of Buddha or Doctrine of Elders.
• Does not believe in Idol worship and tries to attain individual salvationthrough self discipline and meditation. Ultimate aim of Hinayana is thus nirvana.
• Stharvivada or Thervada is a Hinayana sect.
• Asoka Patronized Hinayana.
• Pali, the language of masses was used by the Hinayana scholars.

Mahayana

• Mahayana or “great vehicle” believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and Idol worship of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas embodying Buddha Nature.
• It spread from India to various countries including China and South East Asian nations.
• Zen, Pure Land, Tiantai, and Nichiren, Shingon and Tibetan Buddhism are traditions of Mahayana.
• Mahayana believed in universal liberationfrom suffering for all beings (hence the “Great Vehicle”). Ultimate aim of Mahayana is “spiritual upliftment”.
• It allows salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the Amitābha Buddha by having faith and devoting oneself to mindfulness of the Buddha.
• It believes in Mantras. Language of Mahayana was predominantly Sanskrit.

Similarity between Hinayana versus Mahayana

Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the five offenses, and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths.

Bodhisattva

A Bodhisattva means one who has essence of enlightment. Anyone who has a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all is a Bodhisattva. It’s a very popular subject in Buddhist art. A bodhisattva is bound to enlightment and refers to all who are destined to become Buddhas in this life or another life. There are celestial bodhisattvas which are manifestations of Gautam Buddha. Important 8 Bodhisattvas are as follows:

Avalokiteśvara

Avalokiteśvara encompasses all Buddhas. In China he is known as Guānshìyīn Púsà, in tibetan as Chenrezig, in Thai as Avalokitesuarn. He is said to incarnate in Dalai Lama. He is depicted as holding a lotus flower. He is depicted as female also. A cave wall painting of Avalokiteśvara is devoted in Ajanta Caves as Padmapani.

Manjusri

He is known as Wénshū in Chinse, Jampelyang in Tibetan and is a manifestation of great wisdom and meditation. Mañjuśrī is depicted as a male bodhisattva wielding a flaming sword in his right hand.

Samantabhadra

Samantabhadra means Universal Worthy and he is associated with meditation. Known as Fugen Bosatsu in Japanese and very popular in Japan among the Tendai and Shingon sects. His manifestation is Action and he is key figure in Flower Garland Sutra.

Ksitigarbha

Ksitigarbha is usually depicted as a Buddhist monk in the Orient / East Asia. Ksitigarbha means Earth Womb. he is regarded as Bodhisattva of Earth or Hell beings or Mortals. He is regarded as guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and aborted fetuses in Japanese culture. he carries a staff. Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Manjusri, and Avalokitesvara are the principal Bodhisattvas of East Asian Mahayana Buddhism.

Maitreya

Maitreya will be successor of Gautama Buddha. He is also known as Ajita Boddhisattva. He holds a “water phial” in his left hand. Earliest mention of Metteyya is in the Digha Nikaya 26 of the Pali Canon. It is said that he will arrive when oceans will decrease in size (that is why keeps a Kumbha or philial in his hand) and will rule the Ketumati Pure Land (Varanasi). We note here that popular Budai or laughing Buddha is claimed to be an incarnation of Maitreya. Budai was a Chinese Zen monk who lived during the Later Liang Dynasty (907–923 CE) in China. In Japanese, he is called Hotei and is one of the 7 Lucky Gods of Japan.

Vajrapani

Vajrapani is depicted as one of the 3 protective deities around Buddha, other are Manjusri and Avlokiteshwara. Vajrapani manifests Buddha’s power, Manjusri manifests Buddha’s wisdom and Avlokiteshwara manifests Buddha’s compassion. In Japan a dharma protector called Nio is also Vajrapani.

Sadāparibhūta

Sadāparibhūta is a Bodhisattva which manifests “never disparaging” spirit.

Akasagarbha

Akasagarbha is boundless as space. He is known as twin brother of Ksitigarbha. He is menifestation of wisdom.

Places Associated with Life of Buddha

Astamahasthanas are eight great holy places associated with the life of Buddha. These include four pilgrimage sites related to the life of Gautama Buddha viz. Lumbini, Bodhgaya, Sarnath and Kushinagara and four other sites viz. Sravasti, Sankasya, Rajgir and Vaishali.

Lumbini

Lumbini is currently located in Kapilavastu district of Nepal. It is birth place of Buddha. At the time of birth of Buddha, Lumbini was a part of Shakya Janapada, which was a republic.

Bodhgaya

It is located in Bihar on the bank of river Neranjana {this river was known as Uruwela at that time}. It is known for place of enlightment of Buddha.

Sarnath

Sarnath {also known as Mrigadava, Migadaya, Rishipattana, Isipatana} is the deer park where Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon or Dhammachakraparivartan Sutra. At the time of Buddha, it was a part of Kashi Janapada.

Kushinagar

Kushinara or Kushinagara is located in Kushinagar district of Uttar Pradesh. It is the site of Buddha’s death and mahaparinirvana. At the time of Buddha’s death, it was a capital of Malla janapada.

Sravasti

Sravasti was located in Uttar Pradesh around area of Balrampur in modern Uttar Pradesh. It is closely asscoiated with the life of Buddha because Buddha had spent 24 Chaturmasas {implies 24 years because one year as only one Chaturmasa between Ashadha to Kartika}. Thus, we can say that most of monastic life of Buddha was spent in Shravasti. In Buddha’s times, Shravasti was capital of Kosala Kingdom. Shravasti is also birthplace of Jaina Tirthankar Sambhavanath, and thus is important for Jains also.

Sankasya

It’s current location is Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh. It has some faiths of Buddhism that Buddha after is death descended from heaven here.

Rajgir

Rajgir was the early capital of Magadh Janapada, which was ruled by Bimbisara during Buddha’s time. After the great departure (Mahabhinishkramana), Buddha had first gone to Rajgir. He started begging alms over there and living life of an ascetic. King Bimbisara had offered Buddha his throne which he turned down.

Vaishali

At the time of Buddha, Vaishali was in Vajji Janapada. After leaving Kapilavastu for renunciation, he came to Vaishali first and had his spiritual training from Allara and Udaka.

Other places of importance in Buddhism

Amaravati

Amarawati in Andhrapradesh’s Guntur district is also known as Dhanyakataka or Dharanikota and was the site of a great Buddhist Stupa built in pre-Mauryan times, ruled by Satavahana kings.

Nagarjunkonda

Nagarjunkonda is near Nagarjun Sagar in Andhra Pradesh. Once, it was home to more than 30 Buddhist Viharas (Buddhist universities and monasteries), attracting students from as far as China, Gandhara, Bengal and Sri Lanka. Nagarjunkonda was one the largest and most important Buddhist centers in South India from the second centuary BC until the third century AD. It was named after Nagarjuna, a renowned Buddhist scholar and philosopher, who had migrated here from Amaravati to propagate and spread the Buddha’s message of universal peach and brotherhood. Remains were discovered in 1926 by archaeologist AR Saraswati in 1926.

Ajanta Caves

Ajanta Caves are 31 rock cut caves from 2nd to 8th century AD, located in Aurangabad. The first caves called Chaityas were created during Satavahana Dynasty. Cave No. 1 has the painting of Padmapani and Vajrapani. Painted narratives of the Jataka tales are depicted on the walls.

Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat is located in Cambodia. The temple complex was built by Suryavarman II and it was first devoted to Vishnu and later to Buddhist.

Bodh Gaya

Bodh Gaya was known as Bodhimanda, Uruvela, Sambodhi, Vajrasana and Mahabodhi till 18th century when Bodh Gaya name became popular. It has the Mahabodhi temple and Bodhi tree. It became Unesco world heritage site in 2002.

Bodhi Tree

It’s a Pipal Tree (Ficus Religiosa) and known as Bo in Sri Lanka. Located in Bodh Gaya. Under this tree Gautama attained enlightment. The current tree is a descendent of the original tree. There are other Bodhi trees as well viz. Anandabodhi tree in Sravasti and the Bodhi tree (Bo) or also known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi planted in 288 BC in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka and both of them have been propagated from the original tree. It is also known as oldest living Human Planted tree in the world with a known planting date.

Borobudur

Borobudur is located in Indonesia and comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. It’s a world Heritage site. There are 3 Buddhist temples which are known as Borobudur Temple Compounds.

Bamyan Caves

They are located in Afghanistan and have statues represented the classic blended style of Gandhara art of 6th century, They were the largest examples of standing Buddha carvings in the world, before they were blown by dyanamite by Taliban in 2001.

Ellora Caves

Ellora Caves represent Buddhist, jain and Hindu Rock cut temples built by Rastrakuta Kings. Earliest Buddhist cave is Cave 6; most caves of Buddhism are Viharas. Cave number 10 is a Chaitya hall also known as Chandrashala or Vishwkarma Cave and also known as carpenter’s cave. At heart of this cave is a 15 ft statue of Buddha seated in a preaching pose.

Pushpagiri University

Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Udayagiri are the part of the Puspagiri University which flourished till 11th century in Odisha. They lie atop the Langudi hills in Jajpur and Cuttak of Orissa. Vikramshila, Odantapuri and Somapapuri Vikramshila. Odantapuri & Somapapuri were the Buddhist Viharas founded by Palas.

Other Concepts Related to Buddhism

Trikaya Doctrine

The Trikaya doctrine is a key Mahayana Buddhist teaching that explains the nature of Buddha as having three “bodies” or forms of manifestation. As expressed in early Buddhism, there was confusion around how Buddha could be enlightened yet still live and die as an ordinary human. The Trikaya framework resolves this paradox by showing Buddha has an absolute, eternal truth body along with bodily forms that interact with the material world. Development of the Trikaya Doctrine The three bodies framework first emerged from the Sarvastivada school and was later widely adopted by Mahayana traditions. It addressed concerns around how Buddha could have achieved enlightenment yet still operated in human form. The doctrine illustrates different dimensions to Buddha’s being, from the invisible absolute source to tangible physical emanations. The Three Bodies The Trikaya consists of the dharmakaya, sambhogakaya, and nirmanakaya. Each represents Buddha manifesting in different ways, together enabling Buddha to be unified with ultimate reality while still appearing in conventional reality to teach and assist others seeking enlightenment. Dharmakaya The dharmakaya, meaning “truth body,” is Buddha as ultimate, formless reality. It is equated with perfect enlightenment, emptiness, Buddha Nature – the ground of being inherent in all things and beings. The dharmakaya transcends existence so is not located in a specific realm; rather all manifestations emerge from it. Sambhogakaya Known as the “bliss body,” the sambhogakaya is the reward body resulting from accumulating great merit. Buddha manifests in this celestial, refined form in heavenly domains to teach advanced bodhisattvas. Sambhogakaya forms appear distinctive and of pure vision, but free from gross physicality. Nirmanakaya The “emanation body” is Buddha manifesting in a physical, mundane form subject to birth, sickness, old age and death. It interacts directly with the material world to teach and guide ordinary beings to awaken from within samsara. Historical examples include Buddha Shakyamuni. Together these three bodies demonstrate Buddha’s supreme, deathless enlightenment, his ability to manifest in endless forms to teach and his incarnations aiming to liberate all beings from suffering. The Trikaya doctrine continues to inform Mahayana perspectives on the diverse ways Buddha aids others to awaken.

Comparison of Buddhist Philosophy and Samkhya Philosophy

There are some basic points of agreement towards which both Samkhya-Yoga and Buddhism were drawn. Their approach is positive and pragmatic. This positivistic attitude is reflected in their rejection of sacrificial ritualism, priests, God, etc. Buddha’s antipathy towards sacrifice and violence is well known. But Samkhya being in the fold of orthodox systems also renounces the ritualistic way unable to solve the problem of suffering. Samkhya Philosophy says that sacrificial rituals are like the ordinary perceptible means; hence ultimately ineffective in bringing that abiding and final release from suffering. Samkhya goes to the extent describing one form of bondage, “Bondage by sacrificial gifts.” Both are Humanistic and reject any divine grace for attaining moksa or enlightment Both Samkhya and Buddhism are humanistic. The goal is achievable by everyone by his own effort; one need not look for any divine grace for attaining moksa. Every liberated man attains to the self-effulgent nature of the isolated Purusa (Kevalin) or Buddhahood by following the prescribed method. A man must depend entirely on himself, as the canonical text says: ‘you yourselves must make the effort; the Buddhas do but point the way’. Idea of spirit / soul Both Samkhya and the early Buddhism rejected the concept of soul. They emphasis on individual rather on cosmic; similarity in the theories of evolution; similarity in the view of the world as a constantly becoming and changing phenomena; acceptance of the concept of Gunas; acceptance of the Satkarya vada that the effect resides in its cause; similarity in enumeration of the basic elements or components of nature; similarity in the notions of liberation kaivalya or nirvana; rejection of both the Vedic authority and the validity of rituals; rejection of extreme practices and self torture etc. Though Samkhya abandons the idea of the existence of the absolute, but it retains the idea of spirit (Purusha) and of material world (Prakrti); the Buddhism, on the other hand abandoned both these two conceptions, and retained only the fleeting series of mental states (stream of consciousness) as a quasi reality, In either case there is effort to disown the human psycho-physical apparatus and its functioning.

Chaityas and Viharas

Viharas were for the purpose of living, Chaityas were assemblies for the purpose of discussions. Further, Chaityas were with Stupas, Viharas did not have stupas. Both early Chaityas and Viharas were made by woods and later stone-cut Chaityas and Viharas were made. Chaitya was a rectangular prayer hall with a stupa placed in the centre, the purpose was prayer. The Chaitya was divided into three parts, and had an apsidal ending, that is, a semicircular rear end, The central part of the hall (also called the nave) was separated from the two aisles by two rows of pillars, The chaityas also had polished interior walls, semicircular roofs and horse-shoe shaped windows called the Chaitya windows. Viharas were the residences of the monks.

Charvaka or Lokayata School of Indian Philosphy

This system was originally called Lokayat or Brahaspatya. This school may be called one of the oldest school of Indian materialism that emerged during the pre-Mauryan period, likely as early as the 6th century BCE. The name “Lokayata” comes from “loka” (world) and suggests a philosophy grounded in worldly experience. “Cārvāka” is sometimes regarded as a legendary teacher or founder, though no historical evidence confirms a single individual. It is considered the most radical nāstika school, opposing all spiritual and religious orthodoxy.

Philosophical Outlook

Lokayata advocates materialism and empiricism. It holds that only the physical world exists and that direct perception (pratyakṣa) is the only valid source of knowledge. All other means of knowledge such as inference (anumāna) and testimony (śabda) are rejected as unreliable. Therefore, any belief in God, soul, rebirth, or heaven is considered speculative and false.

Rejection of Vedic Authority

Lokayata categorically rejects the Vedas, rituals, caste system, and the priestly class. It opposes sacrifices, pujas, and other Brahmanical practices, arguing that these are devised by cunning priests to exploit people. The school ridicules concepts such as ritual purity, tapas (austerity), karma, and moksha (liberation), calling them illusions used to control the masses.

Epistemology

In terms of epistemology (theory of knowledge), Lokayata accepts only pratyakṣa (perception) as a valid means of knowledge. They argue that all other methods—especially inference—are prone to error and cannot give certainty. This led to their denial of metaphysical entities, including the soul (ātman) and God (īśvara), because they are not directly observable.

Ethics and Goal of Life

Cārvāka ethics are hedonistic in orientation. The goal of life is to enjoy pleasures and avoid pain, since there is no afterlife. The famous phrase often attributed to them is: “Yāvat jīvet sukhaṁ jīvet, ṛṇaṁ kṛtvā ghṛtaṁ pibet” (“Live happily as long as you live; borrow money, but enjoy ghee.”) However, this does not promote immoral living, but rather pragmatic and rational enjoyment within the bounds of life’s reality.

Texts and Sources

The original texts of Lokayata, such as the Bṛhaspati Sūtra, have been lost, possibly due to suppression by orthodox schools. What we know of their philosophy comes mostly from critical references in Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain texts, such as the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha by Madhavacharya and Tattvopaplavasimha by Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa, who was likely a later materialist.

Political and Social Impact

Lokayata likely had popular appeal among commoners, peasants, and artisans. It acted as a counterbalance to the dominance of Brahmanical orthodoxy and questioned the social order, especially the caste system. It influenced freethinking, rationalism, and critical inquiry in Indian philosophical history, even though it never became an organized religion or widespread movement.

Decline and Legacy

Due to its radical views, absence of religious patronage, and lack of institutional structure, Lokayata gradually declined. It was further marginalized by dominant religious ideologies such as Vedanta, Buddhism, and Jainism. However, its spirit of rationality, skepticism, and freedom from dogma is often regarded as a precursor to scientific thinking and humanism in Indian tradition.

Key Features Summary

• Only perception is valid knowledge (Pratyakṣa)
• No soul, no God, no afterlife
• Rejects Vedas, rituals, and priesthood
• Ethical hedonism: Seek pleasure, avoid pain
• Materialist monism: Only 4 elements (earth, water, fire, air) exist
• No concept of karma or moksha
• Texts lost; known via critiques in other traditions

Aajivika School

The Ājīvika school was founded by Makkhali Gosāla, a contemporary of both Gautama Buddha and Mahavira in the 6th century BCE. Gosāla is said to have initially been a companion of Mahavira before diverging due to doctrinal differences. The school arose in Magadha, in present-day Bihar, and gained traction among certain sections of ascetics and laypeople.

Determinism and Doctrine of Niyati (Fate)

The central doctrine of Ājīvikas was Niyati, meaning absolute determinism. They believed that everything in the universe is preordained, and human beings have no free will. Every event—whether pleasure or pain—is bound to happen at a fixed time due to cosmic necessity. Effort (puruṣārtha), karma, and moral actions cannot alter fate.

Rejection of Karma Theory

Ājīvikas rejected the orthodox Indian belief in karma as a causal moral force. According to them, actions (good or bad) do not determine future rebirths or liberation. The soul simply passes through a fixed cycle of transmigrations, and moksha (liberation) will come automatically after the soul completes its cosmic journey—like a ball rolling downhill.

Soul and Asceticism

Unlike the Cārvākas, the Ājīvikas accepted the existence of an ātman (soul), which they saw as eternal but passively trapped in the cycle of rebirths. Despite their fatalistic philosophy, they practiced extreme asceticism, believing that bodily discipline would help reduce suffering while awaiting liberation. They were often naked ascetics, similar to Digambara Jains.

Religious Views and Beliefs

Ājīvikas rejected the Vedas, priestly rituals, and caste distinctions, making them a Nāstika school. They did not believe in a personal God, though some sources suggest a belief in a cosmic order. While they accepted rebirth and liberation, their path to it was predetermined, not based on moral effort or meditation.

Patronage and Spread

Ājīvika received early royal patronage, especially during the Mauryan era. The Mauryan emperor Bindusara (father of Ashoka) is said to have been a follower of Ājīvika. Ashokan inscriptions mention the sect, and their monastic establishments existed in Magadha, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. However, the sect gradually declined after the Mauryan period and disappeared by the medieval period.

Texts and Legacy

The original texts of the Ājīvika school are lost. Knowledge of their doctrines comes from Buddhist and Jain texts, which often portray Gosāla and Ājīvikas negatively. Samannaphala Sutta (Dīgha Nikāya) in the Pāli canon and Bhagavati Sutra of Jainism are key sources. Despite its decline, Ājīvika’s strict determinism remains a philosophically significant counterpoint to theories of karma and free will.

Key Features Summary (for Revision):

Feature	Details
Founder	Makkhali Gosāla
Central Doctrine	Niyati (absolute determinism; denial of free will)
Soul	Accepted; eternal but passive
Karma	Rejected; actions do not affect rebirth or liberation
Liberation (Moksha)	Inevitable after a cosmic journey of transmigrations
Rituals & Vedas	Rejected Vedas, caste, and priestly rituals
Ethics	No moral causation; suffering and pleasure are fate-driven
Practice	Severe asceticism, often naked monks
Texts	Lost; known through Buddhist & Jain sources
Patronage	Bindusara (Maurya), Ashokan references
Decline	Faded post-Maurya period; extinct by medieval times