Aryan Migration Theory and Aryan Migration Theory

Aryans moved from Central Asia (~2000 BC) to Afghanistan (Kabul–Peshawar & Kandahar via Bolan Pass), then (~1400 BC) to Swat Valley, Punjab & Indo-Gangetic plains.

• Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT): Proposed in the 19th century by colonial scholars. Suggested Indo-Aryans invaded India around 1500 BC, subjugating the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).
• Aryan Migration Theory (AMT): A softer version: Aryans migrated peacefully into India from Central Asia, mixing with local populations.

Most mainstream historians and linguists support migration, not invasion. Indo-Aryans likely entered India gradually, over centuries, probably from the Central Asian Steppe (Yamnaya/Andronovo cultures). Some evidences are like this:

• Linguistics: Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages share deep common roots.
• Archaeology: No clear signs of a violent invasion, but gradual cultural transitions.
• Genetics: Ancient DNA shows a Steppe ancestry influx into North India around 2000–1500 BC, supporting the migration hypothesis.

Major studies (e.g., 2019 Reich Lab/Harvard) show that Steppe pastoralist ancestry appears after 2000 BC in northern India. IVC population had no Steppe ancestry but was genetically linked to later South Asians. Suggests Indo-Aryans arrived after IVC decline, supporting AMT, not AIT. However, Many Indian historians and nationalists reject AIT/AMT, promoting the Indigenous Aryan Theory. They argue that Aryans originated within India, especially around Saraswati-Ghagghar basin. Support comes from reinterpretation of Vedic texts and contested archaeological data (e.g., Harappan–Vedic continuity).

Vedic Civilization Geographical Area

• Sapta Sindhu (“Land of Seven Rivers”): Likely included rivers like Saraswati, Sindhu (Indus), Sutudri (Sutlej), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), Vitasta (Jhelum), Vipas (Beas). Region stretched from Himalayas/Tibet to Aravallis and Turkistan to Afghanistan.
• Brahmavarta: Sacred area between Saraswati and Drishadvati (Ghagghar); early Indo-Aryan settlement zone.
• Aryavarta: Broader Aryan region—parts of modern Afghanistan, Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab), Nepal, Bangladesh, north India up to Vindhyas. No southern settlements during Rig-Vedic period.
• River Name Mapping (Rig-Vedic → Modern):
  • Sindhu → Indus
  • Vitasta → Jhelum
  • Asikni → Chenab
  • Parushni → Ravi
  • Vipas → Beas
  • Sutudri → Sutlej
  • Gomal → Gomati
  • Krumu → Kurram
  • Drishadvati → Ghagghar
  • Suwastu → Swat

A total of 31 rivers have been mentioned in Rig-Vedic hymns, most of which belong to Indus, Ganga and lost Saraswati system. The rivers south to Vindhyas have not been mentioned. Among mountains, they have mentioned Himalayas, Arjika, Mujavant, Silament (Suleman range) etc. They have not mentioned the land south of Yamuna, not even Vindhya or Satpura ranges. The Shatapatha brahamana mentioned eastern and western oceans. Further, Vedic Aryans were rural and nomadic, so no important cities have been mentioned. The places were known only by name of the tribes which controlled them.

Rig Vedic Gods and Worship

The Vedic Aryans were deeply theistic and spiritual. They believed in the concept of “One Truth, Many Names” (Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti), seeing divinity in various forms of nature without idol worship or temples. Their gods personified natural forces, not out of fear, but to gain their favor. Nature’s unity was central, and its phenomena were viewed as divine expressions.

• The mantra “Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti” comes from Rig Veda, the Dirghatama’s Sukta (1.164.46).

Key Deities of the Rig Veda

• Dyaus-Pitr was the earliest sky god, similar to Greek Zeus and Latin Jupiter. Along with Prithvi (Earth), he formed the divine parental pair. The bright sky during the day was called Mitra, and the night sky was Varuna, who also represented the law of nature (Rta) and ruled over the netherworld (Patal Lok).
• Indra, the most celebrated deity, was the god of thunder, rain, and war. He slew the demon Vritra (Vritrahan), broke enemy forts (Purandhar), and brought rains. With 250 hymns, he is the most worshipped in the Rig Veda. He was also called Rathestha (chariot-warrior), Jitendra (victor), and Somapa (soma-drinker).
• Agni, the fire god, was central to rituals and sacrifices. Seen as the priest of the gods and mediator between humans and deities, Agni was both earthly fire and celestial light. Over 200 hymns are dedicated to him in Rigveda.
• Vayu, the wind god, was invoked often. His son, Rudra, the storm deity, was fierce and later became associated with Shiva. The Maruts, storm gods, assisted Indra in bringing rains.
• Surya or Savitr was the sun god. The famous Gayatri Mantra (source – third Mandala, verse 62) is dedicated to Savitr. Aditi, the boundless light, was his mother, and her sons, the Adityas, represented solar deities across months. Vishnu, in the Vedic context, represented the sun’s three strides: dawn, noon, and dusk.
• Yama was the first mortal to die and became the ruler of the dead. His sister Yami (Yamuna) is associated with the night. Usha, the goddess of dawn, was poetically described as radiant, youthful, and auspicious.
• Ashwins (twin gods) were sons of the sky and dawn. Initially deities of light and dark, they later became divine healers. Visvedevas were a collective group of Vedic gods (70 hymns), often invoked together. Pusan was the protector of roads and travelers. Rbhus were three skilled artisans and semi-divine beings.
• Aranyani was the goddess of forests, Prithvi was the Earth goddess, and Gandharvas were celestial musicians. Apsaras, like Urvashi, were celestial dancers. The story of Urvashi and Pururavas appears in Rig Veda and later texts.
• Soma was both a sacred plant and a deified intoxicating drink used in rituals. It was worshipped as a god of vitality and divine ecstasy. An entire Mandala (Book 9) of Rig Veda is dedicated to Soma. In Iran, the same plant was called Haoma.

Comparison of the Greek Dieties and Ancient Hindu Dieties

There was an essential difference between the Hindu gods of the Vedic age and the Greek gods of the Homeric age. The first thing we should note that the Sanskrit language is nearer and closer than the Greek to the original Aryan tongue, yet Hindu conceptions go nearer to the original Nature-worship of the primitive Aryans. The Gods of Homeric Greeks have attained a marked individuality, and the characters are so individualistic that “nature” almost escapes. But the Hindu Gods are still the powers of Nature and show manifestations of Nature. For example, we can identify Indra with Rains easily but can not identify Zeus with Sky. Therefore, we can say that Hindu conceptions are more true to their original sources.

Rig-Vedic Polity

During Rig-Vedic era, the basic unit of power lied within a patriarchal family (Kula). The head of the family was a Kulapa. A group of such families called grama, which was controlled by a village headman Gramini. The groups of the villages belonged to a clan (Vis) and many clans made a community called Jana.

Concept of King

The Chief of this tribe Jana was Rajana. Rajana was not a king in real sense, but a protector of the tribe and the cattle wealth. In fact there was no real state territory or structure or even a real King. Since Rajan was the leader of the people and not ruler of any territory, he is called Janasya gopa or Gopati Janasya also. A Rajana fought wars on behalf of his Jana. These wars were for control of cattle wealth and not possession of territory. Thus, the concept of land territory was absent in early Rig-Vedic period. This is the reason that while term Jana appears many times in Rig-Veda, Janapada does not appear even for once. The territorial aspect of the state is thought to have appeared in later Vedic age only. Initially, the various regions were known after the names of the tribes which controlled them and later they developed into various Janapadas.

Grama and Sangrama

The Grama was not essentially a village but a group of families who kept on migrating. So, again, the concept of a settled village was absent in early Vedic era. A grama can also be called a militaristic tribal unit. A war or battle between Gramas was called Sangrama. In a grama, the duty to manage pastoral land was of a Vrajapati, who also led the battles. Thus, both Gramini and Vrajapati were either same person or equivalent grama level heads.

The Rig-Vedic Tribes

We know about at least 33 tribes belonging to Early and later Vedic era from Rig-Veda. The most important source of these tribes is the Dasrajana or the battle of ten Kings. According to Rigveda, this battle happened between Sudas of Bharata tribe and the confederacy of ten well-known tribes viz. Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Shiva and Vishanin. This bloody battle was fought on the banks of Purushni (Ravi) and Bharata emerged victorious in it.

Taxation

The Rajan could not have an elaborate administrative machinery because the nature of the Rig-Vedic economy. An economy in which the surplus was very small, the Rajan received only Bali, i.e. offering to a prince or to a god from the conquered people. However these tributes were neither regular and nor stipulated and hence cannot be called a tax.

Military & Spy functionalities

There was no regular standing army. The military functions were invested in the Vedic assemblies. All the three persons viz. the Vrajapati, Kulapa (head of the family) and the Gramani functioned as military leaders. The Rajan held the Spies called Spasa to keep an eye on the conduct of the people. Ugra and Jivagribha were two officials probably meant for dealing with the criminals. The Madhyamasi seems to have acted as a mediator in disputes. There was no code of law in the early Vedic era.

The Earliest Tribal Assembly – Vidhata

Vidatha appears for 122 times in the Rig-Veda and seems to be the most important assembly in the Rig Vedic period. Vidatha was an assembly meant for secular, religious and military purpose. The Rig-Veda only once indicated the connection of woman with the Sabha whereas Vidatha is frequently associated with woman women actively participated in the deliberations with men. Vidatha was the earliest folk assembly of the Aryans, performing all kinds of functions- economic, military religious and social. The Vidatha also provided common ground to clans and tribes for the worship of their gods.

Sabha & its Sabhavati

The term Sabha denotes both the assembly (in early Rig-Vedic) and the assembly hall (later Rig-Vedic). Women called Sabhavati also attended this assembly. It was basically a kin-based assembly and the practice of women attending it was stopped in later-Vedic times. Rig-Veda speaks of the Sabha also as a dicing and gambling assembly, along with a place for dancing, music, witchcraft, and magic. It discussed pastoral affairs and performed judicial and administrative functions and exercised judicial authority.

Samiti

The references to samiti come from the latest books of the Rig-Veda showing that it assumed importance only towards the end of the Rig-Vedic period. Samiti was a folk assembly in which people of the tribe gathered for transacting tribal business. It discussed philosophical issues and was concerned with religious ceremonies and prayers. References suggest that the Rajan was elected and re-elected by the Samiti.

The differentiations between Sabha and Samiti

In the beginning, there was no difference between the Sabha and the Samiti. Both were called daughters of Prajapati. Both were mobile units led by chiefs who kept moving along with the forces. The only difference between Sabha and Samiti seems to be the fact that Sabha performed judicial functions, which the Samiti did not. Later, the sabha became a small aristocratic body and samiti ceased to exist.

The Gana or the Republic

A Gana was a assembly or troop. The leader of the gana is generally called Ganapati .

The Parisad

The early parisad seems to be a tribal military assembly, partly, matriarchal and partly patriarchal. However, the variety of the references lead to the non-Vedic character of the parisad. In later-Vedic period, it tended to become partly an academy and partly a royal council dominated by the priests, who functioned as teachers and advisers.

Changes in Polity in later Vedic Era

In the later Vedic period, groups of communities became part of a region or a state (janapada). The idea of kingship evolved gradually from clan chieftainship. By the end of the Vedic period, king’s authority was beginning to derive less from the support of such assemblies than from his own success in the struggle for power. Gradually, the hereditary element crept in with the further consolidation of power by the rajas. From this point, the role of courtiers became important. In the later Vedic era, the main office holders included chief priest (purohit), commander-in-chief (senani), treasurer (samagrahitri), collector of taxes (bhagadugha) and keeper of the king’s household (kshata). Slowly, the legitimisation of the king’s power started getting confirmed by a lengthy and elaborate rituals of sacrifice (yajna) conducted by the priests. This way, the alliance between priest and King became the fundamental feature of the Indian polity. It also later led to social stratification.

Important Officials

For your examinations, you may also note down the important office holders in the Vedic era.

Name	Function
Vrajapati	Officer-in-charge of pasture land
Purohita	Priest of highest order
Jivagribha	Police official
Senani	Supreme commander-in-chief
Gramani	Head of the village
Kulapati	Head of the family
Spasas	Spies & Messengers
Bhagadugha	Revenue collector
Madhyamasi	Mediator for dispute solving
Palagala	Messenger
Sanghrahriti	Treasurer
Suta	Charioteer
Kshatri	Chamberlain
Sthapati	Chief Judge
Mahishi	Chief Queen
Govikartana	Keeper of forests & games
Akshavapa	Accountant
Takshan	Carpenter

Rig-Vedic Society

The Kula or family was the basic unit of Rig-Vedic society. The Kula was headed by a Kulapa, who was usually the eldest member. Society was essentially patriarchal and birth of son was desired repeatedly. Status of women was equal to men in the early Rig-Vedic society. Both polygamy and polyandry were in vogue.

The Evolution of Varna System

Social strata used to exist in the Harappan civilization also. Similarly, there was a threefold division of society {priests, rulers and producers} in the Iranian society also. However, what happened in Indian sub-continent was unique and extraordinary. In the evolution of Kingship in the later Vedic era, the priests (Brahmans) and rulers (Khsatriyas) consolidated their respective position in the society. The producers split into two groups. The free peasants and traders formed the group Vaishya while the slaves, laborers, artisans degraded to fourth group Shudra. This was based on occupation initially but later got rigid on the basis of birth. Despite of a small population, the people got compartmentalized into these four groups as per Varnashrama Dharma.

Marriage and women

Despite of the patriarchal character of the family, the position of women was much better in the Rig Vedic period than in later times. They could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands. Five women have been mentioned as composers of hymns out of which Ghosha, Lopamudra and Apala are famous. Girls were normally married off after puberty (between the age of 16 and 17). Unmarried girls grew up in the home of their parents. Some unmarried woman like Visvavara and Apala offered sacrifices on their own. There are also evidences of widow remarriage in the Rig-Veda.

Education

In the early Rig-Vedic era, entire instruction was given orally. Art of writing does not seem to have developed yet. In the well-known Gayatri mantra there is a prayer to Savitri for the stimulation of the intellect. There were women teachers. Many of them possessed the highest spiritual knowledge. Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted scholars. Rishis who composed hymns founded their own schools separately to teach their pupils and every person among the vis was entitled to learn Vedic mantras. In the later-Vedic phase, with the development of Varnashrama, education began with an investiture ceremony (upanayan). Since Upanayan was confined to three upper Varnas, the sudras were not entitled to education. Sometimes girls were also encouraged. When teacher was satisfied with the student, last sermon called snatakopadesa (kind of convocation) was delivered.

Institution of Gotra

Gotra or cowpen was a mechanism for widening social ties a new relationship was established between hitherto unrelated people. It is possible that animals were herded in common and such a place was known as gotra and from this it acquired the character of an exogamous institution.

Amusements and entertainments

Music, both vocal and instrumental, was well known. Vedic Aryans played on the Vina and flute Vana to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals. Few claim that Dhrupad of Indian classical music originated in Vedic Era. Dancing was common. The chariot race was a favourite sport and source of entertainment. Chariot race was a symbolic source of political authority of the king. The fascination of gambling and the ruin caused by its addiction find mention in the Rig-Veda.

House holding

The Griha sutra prescribes a code of conduct, which gives a fairly good idea of the manners and etiquette of the later-Vedic age. A guest (atithi) was welcomed at all times and special guests, like the guru, the king, and the father-in-law, etc. were given special treatment. Respect for the elders self-restraint, moral purity, abstinence of all kinds and faithfulness were some of the virtues. Cleanliness was a passion. Daily bath, washing of the feet and hands every now and then, and purifying the atmosphere with Vedic mantras were a part of ritual when ritualism acquired special significance in the later-Vedic age. It became one of the many sources of the development of hierarchy and the supremacy for the Brahmanas.

Eating Habits

The main cereal produced by the early Rig-Vedic people was Yava or barley. Wheat (Godhuma) appears in later Vedic texts only. Yava was also a generic term for various kinds of cereals. ilk, Milk products and cattle meat belonged to their food habits. Alcoholic / Non-alcoholic drinks were known and common. Soma and Sura are two popular liquors. Sura may be a kind of beer or wine.

Dress code

Two pieces of cloth were normally worn- the upper garment was called uttariya and the lower one was known as antariya. The dress for the male and the female did not differ much.

Health and hygiene

Everyone aspired for and everyone was blessed to live for a hundred years. Epilepsy was common and it affected the children as well. Superstitions and magical charms were employed to cure the diseases. Miraculous cures are ascribed to the twin-gods, the Ashvins, who are the great healers of diseases and experts in the surgical art. They were divine physicians who restored eyesight and cured the blind, sick and maimed.

Rig Vedic Economy

Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral. They domesticated Pashu (which included cattle, horse and even human beings), as opposed to Mriga, i.e. wild animals. Cattle was synonymous with wealth and a wealthy person was called Gomat. Cattle was so important that the terms of battle were derived from Gau itself, such as Gavisti, Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu. Godhuli was a measure of time. Gopa and Gopati were epithets given to the king. Duhitri was the term used for daughter because she used to milk the cow. One of the four categories of gods was known as Gojata, i.e. cowborn. When the Vedic people encountered buffalo, they called it Gauri and Gavala or cow-haired. The cattle obtained in raids were divided among the families. Cattle formed an important item of donation and it may also have formed a part of bali, the tribute given to the raja by the clan or Vis members. The cattle in general and cow in particular was the main medium of exchange during the Rig Vedic period. The economy was based upon agriculture. The people were well acquainted with the sowing, harvesting, threshing and various agro seasons. The people were pastoral, Cow was revered but the cows, and bulls were sacrificed too. The gifts to the priests were in terms of number of Cows and women slaves but NOT in measurements of lands.

Crafts and Metallurgy

All kinds of crafts were practiced. There were potters, Chariot makers, carpenters, and weaver and leather workers. The metal work was known as follows:

• Copper was known as “Ayas”
• Gold was known as Hiranya
• Iron was also known as was known as Shyama or Krishna Ayas.

Religion

There were no places of worship like temples. There are no indications in the Rig-Veda of any “temples reared by mortal hands” and consecrated as places of worship. On the contrary, every householder, every patriarch of his family, lighted the sacrificial fire in his own home and poured libations of the Soma juice and prayed to the gods for happiness to his family, for abundant crops and wealth and cattle, for immunity from sickness, and for victory over the black aborigines. Natural phenomena were conceived as the expression of some spiritual different appearances of various gods.

Rig-Vedic Literature

The Vedas are said to have been passed on from one generation to the next through verbal transmission and are, therefore, also known as Shruti (to hear) or revelation. The term Vedic literature means the four Vedas in their Samhita and the allied literature based on or derived from the Vedas. We classify the Vedic literature into the following categories:

• The four Vedas i.e. the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva and their Samhitas.
• The Brahmanas attached to each Samhita.
• The Aranyakas.
• The Upanishads.

What is Samhita?

The basic material or mantra text of each of the Vedas is called “Samhita”. Some post Vedic texts are also known as “Samhitas” such as Ashtavakra Gita, Bhrigu Samhita, Brahma Samhita, Deva Samhita, Garga Samhita, Kashyap Samhita, Shiva Samhita and Yogayajnavalkya Samhita. Samhita literally means “compilation” of Suktas (Hymns).

Shruti Literature and Smriti Literature

The Vedic literature is broadly divided into two categories viz. Shruti and Smriti. Shruti is “that which has been heard” and is canonical, consisting of revelation and unquestionable truth, and is considered eternal. Shruti describes the sacred texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism viz. Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, & Upanishads. Smiriti literally means “that which is remembered, supplementary and may change over time”. It is authoritative only to the extent that it conforms to the bedrock of Shruti and it is entire body of the post Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature. It comprises Vedanga, Shad darsana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas, Upangas. We note here that there is no distinct division between Shruti and Smriti. Both Shruti and Smriti can be represented as a continuum, with some texts more canonical than others.

Shruti Literature

Rig-Veda

Rig-Veda is known as the oldest religious text in the world. It is also known as “First testament” of mankind. It was composed around 1700 BC. Last hymns were composed between 1500-1200 BC. It’s a collection of hymns by a number of priest families. It is organized in 10 books which are called Mandalas. The first and 10th Mandalas are the youngest and the longest books. Second to Seventh Mandalas are oldest parts of Rig-Veda but the shortest books. 8th and 9th books are of mixed ages. Rig-Veda is neither a historical nor a heroic poem but is mainly a collection of hymns by a number of priestly families. These were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. The Rig-Veda contains 1017 (1028, including 11 hymns of the Valakhilya recession) hymns (Sukta) and is divided into ten mandalas. The first and the tenth Mandalas are said to have been added later as their language differs slightly from the other eight Mandalas.

Yajurveda

“Yajus” means “sacrificial formula” and Yajurveda is the book of sacrificial prayers. It contains the rituals of the Yajnas. It is estimated to have been composed between 1,400 and 1000 BC. It prescribes the rituals for performing different sacrifices. It was the manual of the Adhvaryus. Adhvarus were the people prepared the ground and the altar offered the sacrificial victims and poured out the libations.

Distinction between Black and White Yajurveda

World’s oldest prose literature of the Indo-Europeans is contained in Yajurveda. There are two distant forms of this Veda. In the oldest, the instructions about rituals are mingled with the verses from the Rig-Veda. The chief recession of this is that taught by a school of teachers called the Taitttiriyans. This was called Black Yajurveda. At a later date other scholars called the Vajasaneyins separated the explanatory matter from the verses to be recited and hence were called white (Shukla) Yajur-Veda, the other being called the black (Krishna) Yajur-Veda. This implies that the Krishna Yajurveda includes the Brahmana prose discussions within the Samhita (i.e. it has no Brahman) while the Shukla Yajurveda has separately a Brahmana text, the Shatapatha Brahmana.

Sam Veda

“Saman” means melody and it contains the Rhythmic compilation of Hymns of Rigveda. It ranks next in sanctity and liturgical importance to the Rigveda. It contains 1549 hymns which are meant to be sung at the soma sacrifice by a special class of Brahmans called “Udgatris”. It has three shakhas or recensions:

• Kauthuma : Panchvish Brahmana
• The Jaiminiya : Jaiminiya Brahmana
• Rāvāyanīya : Shadvish Brahmana

There are two Aranyakas: Chadogya Aranyaka and jaiminiya Aranyaka. Chadogya Aranyaka has Chadogya Upnishad and Jaiminiya Aranyaka has Jaiminiya Upnishad. . Gandharveveda is Samveda’s Upveda is is a technical treatise on Music, Dance and Drama. Bharat’s Natyashashtra is based upon Gandharvaveda.

Atharva Veda

Atharva-Veda is entirely different from the other three Vedas and is chronologtically the last of the four. It is important and interesting as it describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk. Atharvaveda contains the magic spells, incorporates much of early traditions of healing and magic that are paralleled in other Indo-European literatures. For a very long time it was not included in the category of the Vedas.‘ Atharvan’ was a legendary Rishi and is considered to have sung the Atharvaveda. He is also said to have first instituted the fire-sacrifice or yagna. Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa, hence its oldest name is Ātharvāṅgirasa.

• There are two surviving recensions or Shakhas known as Śaunakīya (AVS) and Paippalāda (AVP).
• Gopath Brahmana is the Brahmana of Yajurveda.
• There are three Unishads viz. Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya.
• Satyamev Jayate, India’s Motto comes from Mundaka Upanishad.

Brahmanas

The Brahmanas are the prose texts which explain the hymns in the Vedas, give explanation and applications and related stories of their origin. They also have some stories related to the certain persons related to the Vedic Text. The following diagram shows the Brahmans of Vedas.

Aranyakas

The Aranyakas were written in Forests and are concluding parts of the Brahmans.

Importance of Aranyakas

Aranyakas don’t lay much emphasis on rites, ritual and sacrifices but have philosophy and mysticism. This is because aranyakas were written mainly for the hermits and students living in the jungles. They lay emphasis not on sacrifices but on meditation. They are in fact, opposed to sacrifices and many of the early rituals. Their stress is on moral values. They form a bridge between way of work (karma marga) which was the sole concern of the Brahmanas and the way of knowledge (gyan marga) which the Upanishads advocated. In other words, Aranyakas are focussed on moral science and philosophy. They also provide the details of the Rishis who lived in jungles.

The Upanishads

“Upa” means nearby and “sada” means sit. So Upanishads contain the knowledge imparted by the gurus to their disciples. Eventually the word began to be used for the secret knowledge imparted by the guru to his selected pupils. A number of treatises were prepared, first orally and then in writing, and were called by the same name of Upanishad. Today Upanishads specify philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning.

Why Upanishads are called Vedanta?

The main motto of the Upanishads is “Knowledge Awards Salvation”. Upanishads are called Vedanta (the end of the Veda) firstly, because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of the Veda. The Oldest Upanishads are Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads which date as back as the first millennium BC. Latest were composed in the medieval and early modern period. The latest Upnishad is Muktikā Upnishad and was recorded by Dara Shikoh. It dates to 1656. Dara Shikoh was son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and is known to have translated fifty Upanishads into Persian. There are 108 Upanishads. 11 are predominant and they are called “Mukhya Upanishads”.

Smriti Texts

Vedangas

Vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas. They include Shiksha (Phonetics), Kalpa (Ritual Canon), Vyakaran (Grammar), Nirukta (explanation), Chhanda (Vedic meter) and Jyotisha (Astrology).

Epics (Itihasa)

Ramayana

Created by Maharishi Valmiki. Consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (Kandas) and 500 sargas) and tells the story of Rama. Verses in the Ramayana are written in a 32-syllable meter called anustubh and ranges in 50000 lines in total. Valmiki is also regarded as India’s First Poet. Father Kamil Bulke, author of Ramakatha, has identified over 300 variants of Ramayana. It inspired Tulsikrita Ramayan “Ram Charit Manas” in 1576 by Tulsi Das.

Mahabharta

The Mahabharta is attributed to Maharishi Vyas and the tale known as Bharta is a shorter version of 24,000 verses, while the Mahabharta contains 1 Lakh verses and 1.8 million words which makes it 10 times longer than “Iliad and Odyssey combined” and 4 times of Ramayana.

Puranas

They are late descriptions of ancient legends and consist of history of the universe from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography. They are colored with superstitions and also represent a corrupt form of Hindu Philosophy. There are 18 major Puranas.

Upaveda

Upaveda means applied knowledge and are traditional literatures which contain the subjects of certain technical works. They are as follows:

• Āyurveda: Deals in Medicine and associated with the Rigveda
• Dhanurveda: Deals in Archery and associated with the Yajurveda
• Gāndharvaveda: Deals with Music and Dance and associated with the Samaveda
• Shastrashastra: Deals with military technology and associated with the Atharvaveda.

Important Trivia about Vedic Shruti Literature for UPSC Examinations

Rather than dealing the topics in details, here are some of the notable facts and observations which you must note for your examinations:

On Rig-Veda

• Rig-Veda is oldest literature of the world and is known as “First testament” of mankind.
• The famous Gayatri Mantracomes from third Mandala of Rig-Veda.
• The first hymn (1.1) of Rig-Veda is dedicated to Vedic God Agni.
• One entire Mandala (ninth) is dedicated to the Vedic beverage Soma.
• The Nadistuti sukta is hymn dedicated to 10 rivers of contemporary India.
• The Nasadiya Sukta talks about the origin of the Universe and is part of 10th Mandala. This Sukta states a paradox “not the non-existent existed, nor did the existent exist then”. This particular statement has attracted a lots of commentaries in both Indian and western theology.
• There are two branches of Rig-Veda viz. Shakala Shakhaand Vatkal or Bhashkala Shakha.
• Two Brahmans of Rig-Veda are Aitreya and Kaushitaki.

On Yajurveda

• It contains rituals for yajnas and is ascribed to Advaryus who prepared ground for Yajnas.
• It is world’s oldest prose literature.
• Two branches Shuklaand Shyama. Shyama is older than Shukla and has no separate Brahman. Shukla is newer and has three Brahmanas attached to it viz. Kathaka, Taittiriya and Shatapatha Brahmana
• Dhanurveda is Upaveda of Yajurveda.

On Sam Veda

• Samaveda contains the rhythmic compilation of Hymns for Rig-Veda. The 1549 hymns are there to be sung at the Soma Sacrifice by a special class of Brahamins called Udgatris.
• Gandharveveda is Upaveda of Samveda.
• Panchavisha, Shadvishaand Jaiminiya Brahmanas are attached to

On Atharvaveda

• Atharvaveda is chronologically the latest Veda. It describes the popular beliefs and superstitions of the humble folk.
• It contains the magic spells, incorporates much of early traditions of healing and magic that are paralleled in other Indo-European literatures.
• It is ascribed to Atharvans and Angiras.
• Gopatha Brahman is linked to Atharvaveda.
• Atharvaveda has no Aranyakasappended to it.

The following graphics shows list of Brahmans of four Vedas for quick reference.

On Aranyakas

• As we discussed earlier, they were created in forests and are for students and hermits. They make a bridge between the Karma of Brahmana and Gyana of Upanishads.
• There are no Aranyaka appended to Atharvaveda.

On Upanishads

• Upanishad means to sit down near someone and denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn. They specify philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning and their main motto is “Knowledge Awards Salvation”.
• Upanishads are also called Vedanta, because they reveal the final aim of Vedas.
• Oldest Upanishads are Brhadaranyakaand Chandogya. Latest Upanishad is Muktikā Upnishad recorded by Dara Shikoh in 1656.
• Dara Shikoh, the unlucky son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan is known to have translated fifty Upanishads into Persian.
• There are 108 Upanishads, of which 11 are predominant and called Mukhya Upanishads.

Important Trivia on Upanishads

Four Mahavakyas

The four Mahavakyas or great statements are from Upanishads. They are as follows:

• Prajnanam Brahma: This means consciousness is Brahman. It comes from Aitareya Upanishad of Rig-Veda. This Mahavakya implies that the consciousness is subtlest texture of the cosmos and is present and active everywhere.
• Ayam Atma Brahma: This means self or Atman is Brahman. It comes from the Mandukya Upanishad of the Atharva Veda.
• Tat Tvam Asi: This means “Thou art That”. It comes from the Chandogya Upanishad of the Samveda. It’s too much mystical statement and has been interpreted by different schools differently. In its simplest meaning, it says that self in its pure form is identical with the original reality.
• Aham Brahmasmi: This means “I am Brahman”. This statement comes from the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad of the Yajurveda.

Asato Ma Sadgamaya

This Upanishada belongs to the Shatpath Brahman and contains the famous shloka “asato ma sadgamaya tamaso ma jyotirgamaya mrtyorma amrtam gamaya” This shloka means “lead us from the unreal to the real, lead us from darkness to light, lead us from death to immortality“.

Kathopnishad

It was translated by Max Müller in 1879. It was rendered in verse by Edwin Arnold as “The Secret of Death”. The central story is immortality and covers the story of encounter of Nachiketa, son of sage Vajasravasa, with Yama, God of death.

Muktika

This Upanishad deals with the Para Vidya and Apara Vidya. The Para Vidya is knowledge that leads to Self Realization, Apara Vidya deals with everything else or the material knowledge.

Mundaka Upanishad

Mundaka Upanishad is notable as the source of the phrase Satyameva jayate (3.1.6)

Māandūkya

Mandukya is the Shortest Upanishad. It contains twelve verses expounding the mystic syllable Aum, the three psychological states of waking, dreaming and sleeping, and the transcendent fourth state of illumination.

Praśna

Six pupils interested in knowing divinity or Brahman come to sage Pippalada and requests him to clarify their spiritual doubts. Therefore, this Upnishad is in Question Answer format.

Later Vedic Society, Economy, Polity & Religion

The key changes in later Vedic era included evolution of territorial sovereignty; development of Varnashrama dharma, degradation of Sabha and Samitis, degradation of women, sedentary life, private possession of land, rigidity of the society etc.

General Changes

The Sabhas and Samitis continued to hold the ground; however the women were not allowed to sit in Sabha. Brahmins and Nobles took the place. The King became important and territorial authority became important. The term Rastra which indicated a territorial country got prominent in the later Vedic Age. Ashvamedha Yagya was considered to authorize the unquestioned authority over an area where the Royal Horse could run. The levy of taxes started and became prominent and the officer responsible for this function was sangrihitri. The standing army was not possessed by the king even in Later Vedic period and gramas mustered in times of war.

Changes in Economy

The life became sedentary and the domestication of animals and cultivation increased. Cattle were still the currency and principle movable property. The idea of private possession of lands started taking shape. Ironsmiths, weavers, jewelers, dyers, potters, are the new classes of artisans. Trade was also boosted. The Gold piece of specific weight Satamana was used as a currency rate. Use of Gold as currency is mentioned in Satapatha Brahman. Nishka was another popular currency. The other matellic coins were Suvarna and Krishnala. Barter system still existed. Money lending as a trade was prevalent. Money lenders were called Kusidin.

The Four Varnas

The society was now divided into 4 varnas viz. Brahmans, Kahstriyas, Vaish and Shudras. Each of them was assigned its duty. The vaishyas were common people who were responsible for producing the agricultural commodities and rearing of the cattle. The engaged in trade and were called vaniks. Nagara was used for the first time, which meant a city and beginning of town life.

Types of Marriages in later Vedic Ages

There were several kinds of marriages in later Vedic era listed in below table:

Type of Marriage	Description	Prevailing Social View	Modern Legal Status in India
Brahma	The bride is gifted to the groom after adorning her with precious ornaments and the groom is learned and of good conduct.	Highly regarded as the most honorable form without dowry.	Accepted and encouraged.
Daiva	The daughter is dressed up and gifted to a priest during a sacrifice ceremony.	Considered respectable, usually practiced when the family is unable to find a suitable groom.	Legally accepted but rarely practiced today.
Arsha	The groom gives a cow and a bull to the bride’s parents before marrying her.	Viewed as transactional but acceptable, indicating a lower status than Brahma.	Accepted, though the transactional nature is often discouraged.
Prajapatya	The marriage is performed with blessings for the fulfillment of religious duties, without any dowry.	Viewed favorably, similar in stature to Brahma but without the ornaments.	Accepted and respected.
Gandharva	A marriage based on mutual attraction between a man and a woman, without ceremonies and family approval.	Often seen as less honorable but acceptable, associated with love and passion.	Legally valid, akin to common-law relationships.
Asura	The groom forcibly or secretly pays wealth to the bride’s family to obtain her consent for marriage.	Viewed negatively as it involves coercion or purchase.	Illegal and considered akin to bride buying.
Rakshasa	The groom forcibly abducts the bride from her home after defeating her relatives in battle.	Considered dishonorable and violent.	Illegal, qualifies as kidnapping and coercion.
Paishacha	The groom deceives or seduces a girl when she is asleep, intoxicated, or mentally unstable, and then marries her.	Viewed as the most reprehensible and unethical form of marriage.	Illegal and considered a criminal offense under modern law.

Anuloma and Pratiloma Vivah

The marriage of a man of higher Varna with a girl from lower Varna was called “Anuloma Vivah”. It was allowed by the sacred texts. The marriage of a girl of higher Varna with a man of a lower Varna was called “Pratiloma Vivah” and it was NOT allowed in the texts. However, as it goes, the intermarriage between Varnas led to new castes. Vashishtha mentions below examples:

• The offspring of a Sudra and a Brahman woman becomes a Chandala.
• That of a Sudra and Kshatriya woman, a Vaina.
• That of a Sudra and Vaisya woman, an Antyavasayi.
• The son begotten by a Vaisya on a Brahman woman becomes a Ramaka.
• The son begotten by a Vaisya on a Kshatriya woman, a Paulkasa.
• The son begotten by a Kshatriya on a Brahman woman becomes a Suta.
• Children begotten by Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas on women of the next lower, second lower, and third lower castes become respectively Ambashthas, Ugras, and Nishadas.
• The son of a Brahman and a Sudra woman is a Parasava.

Four Purushartha

Purushartha refers to a goal, end or aim of human existence. The Four Purushartha of Hinduism are as follows:

• Dharma: Dharma is given the foremost rank in the scriptures. Today, it coresponds to religious, social and/or moral righteousness
• Artha: material and/or financial means of living
• Kama : pleasure including sensual pleasures
• Moksha: Liberation; or renunciation as well as detachment

The Hindu Philosophy says that Dharma is the gateway to Moksha.

Ashrama System

Four stages of the lifespan of 100 years were not established in the early Vedic era. They were well established in the later Vedic era and 4 Ashrams were:

• Brahamcharya Ashram: The first 25 years were set for student life
• Grihastha Ashram: The age from 25 to 50 years was kept for having a family and discharging the worldly duties such as giving birth to children and raising them
• Vanaprastha Ashram: Age from 50-75 years was fixed for partial retirement and living life in forests.
• Sanyas Ashram: The last age of 75-100 years was fixed for complete retirement from the world.

The fourth ashram has not been mentioned in early Vedic texts. The Sanyas ashram is mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.

Sacrifices & Rituals

• Rajsuya: This sacrifice conferred supreme power to King.
• Asvamedha: Authorized the King an unquestioned control over an area.
• Vajapeya: It was a chariot race in which the Royal Chariot was to win race against the kinsmen. This elevated the Raja to a Samrat.
• Garbhdharana: The conception ceremony.
• Pumsayam: Ritual to procure a male child.
• Sementonayam: Ritual to ensure safety of the child in womb.
• Jatakarma: Birth ceremony performed prior to cutting the umbilical chord of the newborn infant
• Culakarma: performed in 3rd year of the baby’s life
• Upnayana: performed in the eighth year to confer dvija status.

Important Terms in Vedic Era

Vedic Term	Meaning
Aghanya	Not to be killed
Agnyadheya	ceremony which preceded the public rituals in Vedic Era.
Akshavapa	accounts officer
Amaju	Lifelong unmarried girl
Bhagadugh	carpenter
Bhishaka	Doctor or Vaidya
Charmana	Blacksmith
Datra	Sickle
Duhitri	Milker of cow and also a daughter
Gaura	Buffalo
Gavishti	a fight for cows.
Gocarman	a measure of distance
Gotra	A kinship unit
Hiranyakara	Goldsmith
Jansaya Gopa	Tribal Chief
Kinsmen of the King	Sajata
Kulala	Potter
Purapati	responsible for defense.
Rathakara	Chariot maker
Samgavan	A measure of time
Sarabha	Elephant
Satdaya	Compensation for manslaughter
Sira	Plough
Sita	Furrows
Spas	Spies
Takshan / Teshtri	carpenter
Varatra	leather strap of the Plough
Vrihi	Rice

Comparison of the Harappa and Vedic Civilizations

The key differences between Harappa and Vedic Civilization are enumerated as follows:

• The sources of information of the Harappan civilization are mainly archaeological, while the Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary sources.
• Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of India while the Aryans are believed to have come to India from central Asia as per Aryan Migration Theory which is disputed.
• The Harappan civilization was urban in nature, Vedic culture was rural and pastoral. At best the Rig Vedic Aryans lived in fortified places protected by mud walls; and these cannot be regarded as towns in the Harappan sense.
• In the Indus civilization trade, internal and external, crafts as well as industries were the main sources of economy, Vedic Economy was initially postoral and later became based upon agriculture and cattle rearing.
• The agricultural operations, including the ploughing of fields, were better known to the later-Vedic people.
• Indus people did not know the use of iron. It was purely a copper-bronze culture, while the Vedic culture in its later phase is replete with references to iron.
• The horse, which played a decisive role in the Aryan system of warfare, was not known to the Indus people. A few bones of horse and terracotta figure of a horse-like animal have been unearthed from surkotada.
• Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms (swords, daggers, arrow-heads, spears) were primitive in nature. Aryans were warlike people and were conversant with all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had devised a full-fledged science of war.
• The Harappans practiced earth burials whereas the Aryans practiced cremation.
• Harappan pottery called black or red pottery was wheel made and very distinctive in nature. The distinctive Aryan pottery is known as PGW (painted grey ware).
• The Harappans ate all birds and animals including cow and calf. They ate wheat, barley and bread. The Aryans preferred Barley, milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and enjoyed Soma drink.
• Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the Aryans put on woollen garments
• Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages , Indus script still remains undeciphered.
• It was quite clear that Indus people were literate whereas the Vedic people were illiterate (In terms of writing) because there is not a single word for writing in any of the Vedic texts.

Concept of Rita and Dharma

Dharma is so called, because it holds; Dharma holds the people. Etymologically, Dharma is derived from the root Dhr—to hold—and its meaning is ‘that which holds’ this world. Rita is predecessor to Dharma and is the Original Rig Vedic concept which refers to the principle of natural order which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it. Rita is described as that which is ultimately responsible for the proper functioning of the natural, moral and sacrificial orders. In Rig Veda, Rita appears as many as 390 times. Rita has been characterized as “the one concept which pervades the whole of Rig-Vedic thought. In the early Rig Vedic era, Rita was abstract; slowly the universal principle started mingling with the anthropomorphic tendencies of the Vedic period. In due course of time, it became associated with the actions of individual deities. The Rita became associated with Varuna, the omniscient, all pervading sky God. Adityas became the Chariotters of Rita. Varuna became the friend & keeper of Rita. Varuna became the universal Power, which maintained Rita and was celebrated as having “separated and established heaven and earth, spreading them out as the upper and lower firmaments, himself enthroned above them as the universal king, ordering the immutable moral law, exercising his rule by the sovereignty of Rita”. (James 1969) Eventually Dharma overshadowed Rita in the later Vedic Era. While Rita encompassed the ethical principles with a notion of cosmic retribution, Dharma was said to be a path to be followed as per the ordinances of Rita. Failing to follow this path meant appearance of various forms of calamity and suffering. Committing to the path of Rita was “Dharma” so we can say that Dharma was originally conceptualized as a subordinate component Rita Dharma became a very useful instrument in framing religious, moral and social regulations, that interest in it and discussion of its applications to social and moral order eclipsed all discussions of metaphysical and theological ideas. There was also an important change in later Vedic and Epic Era. The notion of Dharma shifted emphasis away from nature as executor of Rita and now it became more or less an individual duty to uphold the Dharma through one’s actions. This was called Karma. Karma is what one does to uphold the Dharma and thus, the emphasis from the natural order vanished and it became essentially related to the pains and pleasures one experiences in life, and this tried to explain the gross inequality and injustice in the world. So, Karma was somewhat opposite to Rita as well as Dharma. Karma became the central piece of Hindu philosophy in later Vedic era.

The Concept of Sapta Rishi

Saptarshi or the seven sages are mentioned at many places in Vedic Literaure. The term “Saptarishis” is NOT mentioned in Vedic Richas but they are enumerated in different later Vedic texts, Upnishads and Brahmanas, They are considred to be the patriarchs of Vedic Religion. Ursa Major constelleation is coterminous with Sapta Rishi. Ursa Minor is coterminous with Laghu Sapta Rishi. There is one more star slightly visible within the Saptarishi and it is called Arundhati.

• The first list of the seven sages was given by Jaiminiya Brahman. The rishis are Vasistha, Bharadvaja, Jamadagni, Gautama, Atri, Visvamitra, and Agastya
• The second list is given in Brihadaranyaka Upnishad which mentions the names as Gautama and Bharadvāja, Viśvāmitra and Jamadagni, Vasiṣṭha and Kaśyapa, and Atri.
• Gopath Brahmana enlists the 7 sages as follows: Vasiṣṭha, Viśvāmitra, Jamadagni, Gautama, Bharadvāja, Gungu, Agastya, and Kaśyapa.

The role played by the Saptarishis in the birth of Kartikeya, has been vividly described in Kumarsambhava of Kalidasa.Rishi Agastya was one of the legendary sage, about whom a lot of traditions prevalent. His greatest feat was the reconciliation of Indra and the Maruts after Indra had been annoyed at his proposing to give the Maruts an offering to the exclusion of Indra. This feat is the subject of three hymns of the Rigveda. Agastya married Lopamudra, and appears in a strange dialogue with Lopamudra in Rigveda. In the Rigveda, this appears to show him as an ascetic who finally yields to temptation.

The story of Agastya and Lopamudra

Lopamudra is also known as Kaushitaki and Varaprada, there is one hymn in the Rigveda is attributed to her. Lopamudra was created by sage Agastya with the most graceful parts of animals such as eyes of the deer etc. She spread the fame of the Lalita sahasranama (the thousand names of the Divine Mother). The meaning of word Lopamudra is “loss of beauty” which refers to the loss caused to the animals in her creation. Agastya created her, secretaly introduced her to the palace of Vidarbha King, and later when she grew up asked the king to return her as his wife.

Metals known to Aryans

The exact metal denoted by this word when used by itself, as always in the Rigveda, is uncertain. The most probable accepted candidate for the use of word Ayas were either Copper or Bronze. In Rigveda, Agni has been referred to as Ayodamstra which means “one that with teeth of Ayas”, the teeth refer to flames of Agni. The Vajanseyi samhita notes that Gold was Hiranya, Iron was Syama (also Syama Ayas), Lead was sisa, Tin was Trapu, Lohita Ayas was Copper, because of its red color.

Some Notable Trivia

• Kathopnishad deals with the dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama
• “Satyamev Jayate” India’s motto comes from“Mundaka Upnishad”
• Aitareya Brahman establishes Superiority of Brahmins.
• Shudra word comes in 10thMandala of Rig-Veda, so this term also belongs to later vedic age.
• In the later Vedic period, divine royal theory started. The king in the center was called Raja, Samrat in East, Swarat in West, Virat in North and Bhoj in South.
• Coins were used in Later Vedic Age
• Most mentioned River is Indus, Most revered river is Saraswati.
• The marriage of a widow to brother or relative of the deceased was known as “Niyoga”.
• Rishi Agastyais known for Aryanization of South India.
• Jabala Upnishad mentions the 4 Ashrams for the first time.
• Swastikais said to be not only pre-Vedic but also Pre-Harappan and it existed from Baluchistan, Indus Valley and even Turkmenistan. It is NOT an exclusive Aryan Symbol.
• Vaishya as a Varna has NO mention in Rig-Veda
• Yavyavati is another name for Ravi in Rig-Veda.
• Agni was a God which was worshipped by Aryans as well as Ancient Iranians.
• A hymn in Rig Veda is devoted to Lopamudra. She was wife of Rishi Agastya and credited with spreading the fame of the Lalita sahastranama. Her other names are Kaushitaki and Varaprada.
• Gargi was daughter of Rishi Vachaknu and is mentioned in the Sixth and the Eighth Brahmana of BrhadaranyakaUpanishad
• Atranjikheda is the place where largest deposits of the Iron weapons have been found.
• The literal meaning of Aryamnah Pantha word is “Aryaman’s Way” and is an expression which occurs in the Brahmanas and denotes the “Milky way”
• In early Vedic era, there was no distinct theory of Kingship and King (Rajan) was generally a tribal chieftain. This chieftain was the holder of the established order and moral rule which was called Dhratavatra.

Later Vedic Literature

Vedanga

Vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas. They are as follows:

Vedanga	Meaning	Purpose/Function
Shiksha	Phonetics & Pronunciation	Teaches correct pronunciation, intonation, and articulation of Vedic chants.
Kalpa	Rituals & Procedures	Guides Vedic rituals and ceremonies (includes Shrauta, Grihya, Dharma Sutras).
Vyakarana	Grammar	Ensures correct usage of Vedic language (Panini’s Ashtadhyayi is key text).
Nirukta	Etymology & Explanation	Explains difficult Vedic words and their meanings.
Chhanda	Prosody (Meter)	Studies Vedic meters to maintain rhythm and structure in recitation.
Jyotisha	Astronomy & Astrology	Determines auspicious timings for rituals based on planetary positions.

Shiksha (Phonetics)

Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymns and mantras. The oldest phonetic textbooks are the Pratishakyas (prātiśākhya), describing pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit, as well as the Sanskrit rules of sandhi (word combination), specific to individual schools or Shakhas of the Vedas.

Kalpa (Ritual Canon)

It contains the sacrificial practice and systematic sutras. There are three kinds of Sutras part of Kalpa:

• Śrautasūtras, which are based on the Shruti, and teach the performance of the great sacrifices, requiring three or five sacrificial fires
• Smartasūtras,or rules based on the Smriti or tradition. The Smartasūtras have two classes viz.
• Grhyasutras, or domestic rules: They are basically treating the rites of passage, such as marriage, birth, namegiving, etc., connected with simple offerings into the domestic fire.
  • Dharmasutras or customs and social duties: The Dharmasūtras are the first four texts of the Dharmasastra tradition and they focus on the idea of dharma, the principal guide by which Hindus strive to live their lives. The Dharmasūtras are written in concise prose, leaving much up to the educated reader to interpret.The most important of these texts are the sutras of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vasiṣṭha.
    • The Dharmasūtras can be called the guidebooks of dharmaas they contain the rules of conduct and rites as practiced in the Vedic schools. They discuss about the duties of people at different stages of life like studenthood, householdership, retirement and renunciation. These stages are also called āśramas. They also discuss about the rites and duties of kings, judicial matters, and even personal practices like the regulations in diet, offenses and expiations, daily oblations, and funerary practice.

Vyakaran (Grammar)

Vyakaran includes the Aṣṭādhyāyī, of Panini. Most of the work of very early Indian grammarians ranging to 8th century BC is lost. There are 4 parts of Panini’s Grammar:

• Śivasūtra: Contains phonology (notations for phonemes specified in 14 lines)
• Aṣṭadhyāyī: Contains morphology (construction rules for complexes)
• Dhātupāṭha:Contains list of roots (classes of verbal roots)
• Gaṇapāṭha: Contains list of classes of primitive nominal stems

Nirukta (explanation)

It is traditionally attributed to Yāska, an ancient Sanskrit grammarian. It deals with etymology, particularly of obscure words, especially those occurring in the Veda

Chhanda (Vedic meter)

It measures and divides Vedic Mantras by number of padas in a verse, which is called Padas. Number of padas divides each verse, hymn, or mantra and number of syllables divides each pada. There is a distinct taxonomy on this basis. For example a Gayatri Chhanda has 3 padas of 8 syllables containing 24 syllables in each stanza. Similarly, Anuṣṭup has 4 padas of 8 syllables containing 32 syllables in each stanza. Anustup is the typical shloka of classical Sanskrit poetry

Jyotisha (Astrology)

It describes rules for tracking the motions of the sun and the moon and the foundation of Vedic Jyotish.

Shatdarshana

Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into six āstika (orthodox) schools of thought, or darśanam, which accept the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures. The āstika schools are:

• Samkhya, an atheistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and matter.
• Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation, contemplation and liberation.
• Nyayaor logic, explores sources of knowledge (Nyāya Sūtras).
• Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism.
• Mimāṃsā, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy.
• Vedanta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the ‘Jnan’ (knowledge) ‘Kanda’ (section). Vedanta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period.

Of the historical division into six darsanas, only two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, survive. The basic information about them is as follows:

Darshana	Founder	Scriptures	Key Concepts
Nyaya	Gautama	Nyaya Sutras	Logic and epistemology, four sources of knowledge (pramana): perception, inference, comparison, and testimony
Vaisheshika	Kanada	Vaisheshika Sutras	Atomism, categories of reality: substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and inherence
Samkhya	Kapila	Samkhya Karika, Samkhya Sutras	Dualism of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter), evolution of the universe, enumeration of 25 tattvas
Yoga	Patanjali	Yoga Sutras	Eightfold path (Ashtanga Yoga), physical and mental discipline, meditation, and liberation (moksha)
Purva Mimamsa	Jaimini	Mimamsa Sutras	Rituals and dharma, exegesis of Vedas, emphasis on karma and yajna (sacrificial rites)
Vedanta	Badarayana	Brahma Sutras, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita	Philosophy of the Upanishads, nature of Brahman (ultimate reality), three main sub-schools: Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita

Nyaya Philosophy

Nyāya is one of the six classical schools of Indian philosophy (ṣaḍ-darśanas), focused primarily on logic, epistemology (theory of knowledge), and metaphysics. Its foundational text is the Nyāya Sūtra, attributed to Gautama (also known as Akṣapāda), around 2nd century BCE–2nd century CE.

Vaisheshika

It was proposed by Maharishi Kanaad. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms. The school deals in detail with “Padarth” or Matter.

Samkya

Samkya or Samkhya means Enumeration. The founder of the Sankya school of Philosophy was Maharishi Kapil. The school denies the “existence of God” and postulated that there are two realities Purusha and Prakriti. Purusha is the consciousness and Prakriti is the phenomenal realm of matter.

Yoga

Founder of this school of Philosophy was Patanjali. Yuj means “control” and Yoga also mean to “add”. Rāja Yoga, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, and Hatha Yoga are its main branches. The Yogasutras of Patanjali which mainly postulate the Raj Yoga , date back to Mauryan Period while Hathayoga was introduced by Yogi Swatmarama. The major difference between Raj Yoga and Hathayoga is that Raja Yoga aims at controlling all thought-waves or mental modifications, while a Hatha Yogi starts his Sadhana, or spiritual practice, with Asanas (postures) and Pranayama. So Raj Yoga starts from Mind and Hathyoga starts from Body.

Mimansa

Mimansa means investigation or enquiry. The primary enquiry is into the nature of dharma based on close theology of the Vedas. it has two divisions, Poorva Mimansa and Uttar Mimansa. Uttar Mimansa is treated as Vedanta. The poorva Mimansa was postulated by Jamini. The ideology of Poorva Mimansa was to counteract the challenge by Buddhism and vedanta which marginalized the Vedic sacrifices. This school got momentum in Gupta period and reached its climax in 7-8th century. Sabara and Kumaril Bhatta were two main interpretators. It was one of the major forces to decline Buddhism in India , but later itself was eclipsed by Vedanta.

Vedanta:

Vedanta means Veda end or the purpose or goal of the Vedas. It was given by Badrayana or maharishi Vyasa who is one of the 7 chiranjivis and wrote “Mahabharta“.

Difference between Nyaya and Vaisheshika

Vaisesika is allied to the nyaya system of philosophy. Both systems accept the liberation of the individual self as the end goal; both view ignorance as the root cause of all pain and misery; and both believe that liberation is attained only through right knowledge of reality. There are, however, two major differences between Nyaya and Vaisesika.

• First, nyaya philosophy accepts four independent sources of knowledge — perception, inference, comparison, and testimony — but vaisesika accepts only two — perception and inference.
• Second,nyaya maintain s that all of reality is comprehended by sixteen categories (padarthas), whereas vaisesika recognizes only seven categories of reality. These are: dravya (substance), guna (quality), karma (action), samanya (generality), visesa (uniqueness), samavaya (inherence), and abhava (nonexistence). The term padartha means “the object denoted by a word,” and according to vaisesika philosophy all objects denoted by words can be broadly divided into two main classes

— that which exists, and that which does not exist. Six of the seven padarthas are in the first class, that which exists. In the second class, that which does not exist, there is only one padartha, abhava, which stands for all negative facts such as the nonexistence of things.

Vedanta

Vedanta means Veda end or the purpose or goal of the Vedas. It was given by Badrayana or Maharishi Vyasa, who is one of the 7 Chiranjeevis and wrote “Mahabharata”.

Advaita

Its proponent was Adi Shankara and his Guru Gaudapada. The essence of this Vedanta is that “Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory.”

Vishishtadvaita

Its proponent was Rāmānuja. The basic theory is that “jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities”. Vishishtadvaita advocates Bhakti to attain God.

Dvaita

The proponent of the Dvaita was Madhwāchārya. This theory is also known as Tatvavādā – The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God in the Brahman (Universe) and its incarnations such as Vishnu and Krishna. It says that all individual souls (jīvātmans) and matter as eternal are mutually separate entities.

Dvaitādvaita

The theory of Dvaitādvaita was given by Nimbarka. It is based upon the early school of Bhedābheda of Bhaskara. It says that jīvātman is at once the same as yet different from Brahman. The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. This school identifies God in Krishna.

Shuddhādvaita

The proponent of Shuddhādvaita was Vallabha. It says that World is Leela of God that is Krishna and he is Sat-Chid-Aananda. It identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation. Vallabha was also a famous saint of Pushti Marg. He won the famous debate of Brahmavad over Shankars.

Achintya Bhedābheda

The proponent of Achintya Bhedābheda was Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was a follower of the Dvaita vedanta of Sri Madhwacharya. The doctrine of Achintya Bhedābheda or inconceivable and simultaneous one-ness and difference states that the soul or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God and he can be experienced through a process of long devotion. It identified God in Krishna. This Philosophy is followed by ISKCON.

Purnādvaita or Integral Advaita

The proponent of Purnādvaita was Shri Arubindo. He propounded this doctrine in his “The Life Divine”. synthesized all the exant schools of Vedanta and gave a comprehensive resolution integrating cues from the Western metaphysics and modern science. Sri Arubindo is known to be one, who restored the umbilical cord of the Vedantic exegesis with the Vedas.

Modern Vedānta

The proponent of Modern Vedānta was Swami Vivekananda. His philosophy says that the conditions of abject poverty should be removed; only then will people be able to turn their minds toward God.