Rowlatt Satyagraha and Mass Protest

The Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 was Mahatma Gandhi’s first pan-India political campaign. It transformed the Indian national movement from elite constitutional petitions into a widespread mass struggle. The movement emerged as a direct response to the repressive Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, popularly called the Rowlatt Act.

Background and Genesis

The British colonial government appointed the Sedition Committee in December 1917 under Sir Sidney Rowlatt. Its goal was to evaluate anti-colonial revolutionary activities and suggest permanent legislative measures.

Cause for Public Anger

• Extension of Emergency Powers: The Rowlatt Act aimed to make the wartime restrictions of the Defense of India Act 1915 permanent during peacetime.
• Denial of Civil Liberties: The law permitted the arrest and detention of political suspects for up to two years without trial, legal representation, or right to appeal.
• Unanimous Indian Opposition: All non-official Indian members in the Imperial Legislative Council voted against the bill.
• Resignations in Protest: Prominent leaders including Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Mazhar-ul-Haq resigned from the Council in protest.

Formation of Satyagraha Sabha and Strategy

Mahatma Gandhi organized the resistance by founding the Satyagraha Sabha in Bombay in February 1919. Young nationalists, Home Rule League members, and Pan-Islamists joined the initiative.

Campaign Plan and Execution

• Satyagraha Pledge: Members took a solemn pledge to refuse obedience to the Rowlatt Act and accept arrest and imprisonment peacefully.
• Nationwide Hartal: Gandhi called for a countrywide strike (hartal) involving the suspension of business, fasting, and prayer.
• Change of Dates: The strike was initially scheduled for March 30, 1919, but was postponed to April 6, 1919. Communication delays led to demonstrations starting on March 30 in places like Delhi.
• Popular Slogan: The public summarized the arbitrary nature of the law through the phrase “No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal” (No argument, no lawyer, no appeal).

Spread of Mass Protests Across Regions

The agitation witnessed unprecedented participation across urban centers, market towns, and railway hubs.

Regional Dynamics

• Delhi: Swami Shraddhanand, an Arya Samaj leader, led the demonstrations and was invited to address a large gathering at the Jama Masjid, symbolizing communal unity.
• Punjab: Amritsar and Lahore emerged as major centers of protest under the leadership of Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal.
• Gujarat: Violent clashes occurred in Ahmedabad, Viramgam, and Nadiad following rumors of Gandhi’s arrest.
• Bombay Presidency: Mass processions swept Bombay city, where banned literature like Gandhi’s Hind Swaraj was sold publicly.

Repression and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

The rapid expansion of the protest alarmed the colonial administration, leading to harsh military measures, particularly in Punjab.

Sequence of Events

• Arrest of Popular Leaders: On April 10, 1919, the Punjab administration arrested Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal in Amritsar, sparking angry demonstrations.
• Prohibition of Assemblies: Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer took charge of Amritsar and banned all public gatherings under martial law orders.
• The Massacre: On April 13, 1919 (Baisakhi day), troops under General Dyer opened fire on thousands of unarmed civilians gathered at Jallianwala Bagh, killing hundreds of peaceful protestors.
• Suspension of Movement: Shocked by the outbreak of violence in various cities and the military brutality in Punjab, Gandhi suspended the Rowlatt Satyagraha on April 18, 1919, calling it a “Himalayan blunder” due to the lack of non-violent training among the public.

Key Facts and Historical Context

Lord Chelmsford was the Viceroy of India when the Imperial Legislative Council passed the Rowlatt Act in March 1919. Michael O’Dwyer was serving as the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab during the Rowlatt agitation and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his British Knighthood in May 1919 as a direct protest against the military atrocities committed in Punjab. Mahatma Gandhi returned his Kaisar-i-Hind Gold Medal in August 1920 in response to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre and the Khilafat issue. The Disorders Inquiry Committee, headed by Lord William Hunter, was appointed in October 1919 to investigate the unrest in Punjab, Delhi, and Bombay. Indian members on the Hunter Committee included Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad, Pandit Jagat Narayan, and Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan. Following the recommendations of the Repressive Laws Committee chaired by Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, the British colonial administration officially repealed the Rowlatt Act in March 1922.