Caste Movements in Colonial India

Caste movements in colonial India emerged as a reaction against social stratification, ritual untouchability, and unequal access to public resources. The introduction of the decennial census by the British administration in 1872, particularly under Census Commissioner H.H. Risley in 1901, categorized castes based on social precedence. This prompted lower and intermediate castes to organize associations to claim higher ritual status and demand administrative representation. The growth of modern education, colonial land settlements, expansion of railways, and print culture provided subaltern groups with tools to challenge Brahminical dominance. These movements developed across regions, taking the form of anti-Brahmin agitations, temple entry movements, and organized peasant and worker assertion.

Anti-Brahmin Movements in Western and Southern India

Anti-Brahmin agitations aimed to end the monopoly of upper castes in government employment, education, and religious authority.

Satya Shodhak Samaj (Maharashtra)

Jyotirao Phule founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) in Pune in 1873. He sought to liberate Bahujans (non-Brahmins) and Dalits from Brahminical exploitation.

• Key Publications: Phule authored Gulamgiri (Slavery) in 1873, dedicated to the American abolitionist movement, and Shetkarayacha Asud (The Whipcord of the Cultivators) in 1881.
• Patronage: Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj of Kolhapur supported the movement by providing reservations in administrative posts for non-Brahmins in 1902.
• Pioneer Leaders: Savitribai Phule established the first school for girls at Bhide Wada, Pune, in 1848 alongside Muktabai and Fatima Sheikh.

Self-Respect Movement (Tamil Nadu)

E.V. Ramasamy (Periyar) launched the Self-Respect Movement (Suya Mariyathai Iyakkam) in 1925 after resigning from the Indian National Congress.

• Core Ideology: The movement advocated for rationalism, atheism, rejection of the Manusmriti, and equal rights for women. It introduced “Self-Respect Marriages” performed without Brahmin priests or religious rituals.
• Publications: Periyar edited Tamil journals including Kudi Arasu (1925), Revolt (1928), and Puratchi (1933).
• Political Legacy: In 1944, the Self-Respect Movement merged with the Justice Party to form the Dravidar Kazhagam.

Justice Party (Madras Presidency)

T.M. Nair, Pitti Theagaraya Chetty, and C. Natesa Mudaliar founded the South Indian Liberal Federation (Justice Party) in 1916.

• Non-Brahmin Manifesto (1916): Demanded reservations for non-Brahmins in legislative bodies, public services, and educational institutions.
• Legislative Action: Upon forming the government in Madras Presidency under the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, the party passed the Communal Government Orders of 1921 and 1922, establishing early reservation policies for non-Brahmins.

Self-Assertion Movements in South and Central India

Several lower-caste communities organized socio-religious reform associations to build economic self-reliance, gain education, and achieve social dignity.

Dalit Assertion and the Leadership of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar transformed the anti-caste movement into an organized political and constitutional struggle for human rights, civic equality, and political representation.

Institutional Milestones

• Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924): Founded in Bombay with the motto “Educate, Agitate, Organize” to promote socio-economic welfare among depressed classes.
• Independent Labour Party (1936): Formed to represent the interests of workers, small farmers, and landless laborers.
• Scheduled Castes Federation (1942): Established as an all-India political organization to demand separate electorates and constitutional safeguards.

Direct Action Agitations

• Mahad Satyagraha (1927): Ambedkar led untouchables to drink water from the Chaddar Tank in Mahad, Maharashtra, asserting their equal right to public water sources. During this agitation, protesters publicly burned copies of the Manusmriti.
• Kalaram Temple Entry Satyagraha (1930): Organized at Nashik alongside Bhaurao Gaikwad to demand entry into the Kalaram Temple for Dalits.

Political Agreements and Communal Award

The British government announced the Communal Award in August 1932, granting separate electorates to the Depressed Classes. Mahatma Gandhi opposed separate electorates and underwent a fast unto death at Yerwada Central Jail in Pune. This led to the signing of the Poona Pact on September 24, 1932, between Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Madan Mohan Malaviya (representing upper-caste Hindus). Under the pact, Ambedkar surrendered separate electorates in exchange for an increased number of reserved seats for Depressed Classes in provincial and central legislatures (from 71 to 148 seats in provincial legislatures).

Depressed Class Movements in Eastern India

Matua Mahasangha (Bengal)

Harichand Thakur founded the Matua Sect in Bengal during the 1860s among the Namasudra (Chandala) community. His son, Guruchand Thakur, organized the Matua Mahasangha in the early twentieth century.

• Objectives: Focused on literacy, economic independence, and social dignity, breaking away from traditional Vedic rituals.
• Political Action: The Namasudra Association formed in 1912 pushed for political representation and lobbied the colonial state for caste-based affirmative action.

Adi-Hindu and Depressed Class Agitations in North India

• Adi-Hindu Movement: Swami Achhatanand launched the movement in Uttar Pradesh during the 1920s. He argued that Dalits were the original inhabitants (Adi-Hindus) of India who were subjugated by Aryan invaders.
• Ad-Dharm Movement: Mangoo Ram founded the Ad-Dharm movement in Punjab in 1926 to secure independent identity, education, and political rights for untouchable communities.

Historical Facts Summary

The Temple Entry Proclamation was issued by Maharaja Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma of Travancore on November 12, 1936, throwing open all government-controlled temples to lower-caste Hindus. Sree Narayana Guru coined the famous slogan “Oru Jathi, Oru Matham, Oru Daivam Manushyanu” (One Caste, One Religion, One God for Man). His disciple Sahodaran Ayyappan modified it to “Jathi Illa, Matham Illa, Daivam Illa Manushyanu” (No Caste, No Religion, No God for Man) to promote rationalism. Mahatma Gandhi founded the All India Anti-Untouchability League in 1932, later renamed the Harijan Sevak Sangh, and launched the weekly publication Harijan in 1933 to campaign against untouchability across India. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar published journals to spread social consciousness: Mooknayak (Leader of the Silent) in 1920, Bahishkrit Bharat (Excluded India) in 1927, Samata (Equality) in 1928, and Janata (The People) in 1930. The Government of India Act 1935 formally recognized the term “Scheduled Castes” to replace “Depressed Classes,” providing a unified statutory framework for reservations in post-independence India.