Mycology

Mycology is the biological discipline devoted to the study of fungi, encompassing their taxonomy, genetics, physiology, biochemistry, ecological roles, and interactions with plants, animals, and humans. Fungi are extraordinarily diverse, ranging from microscopic yeasts to large macroscopic mushrooms found in forested landscapes such as Mount Field National Park. Their ecological and economic importance has made mycology a major subfield of modern biology with extensive applications in agriculture, medicine, biotechnology, and environmental science.

Origins, terminology and early development of the field

The term mycology is derived from the Greek mykēs (fungus) and logia (study). Early scientific inquiry into fungi emerged in classical antiquity. Greek writers such as Euripides and Theophrastos described mushrooms, although these organisms were long regarded as plants lacking typical plant structures. Pliny the Elder provided detailed accounts of truffles in Natural History, but conceptual and classificatory progress remained limited throughout the Middle Ages.
Systematic study of fungi began in the eighteenth century. Pier Antonio Micheli’s Nova plantarum genera (1737) laid foundational principles for fungal taxonomy, while Carl Linnaeus incorporated fungi into his binomial system in Species Plantarum (1753). Though Linnaeus grouped all gilled mushrooms under Agaricus, many of his scientific names—such as Boletus and Agaricus campestris—remain in contemporary use.
The nineteenth century saw rapid growth in mycological scholarship. Elias Magnus Fries and Christiaan Hendrik Persoon established major taxonomic frameworks; Miles Joseph Berkeley, often credited with coining mycology, advanced fungal pathology; and Beatrix Potter contributed expert illustrations and field observations despite being known primarily as an author. Pier Andrea Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum became the first comprehensive global listing of fungal taxa, organised primarily by spore morphology. The twentieth century brought transformative changes through molecular methods and the realisation, supported by phylogenetic evidence, that fungi are evolutionarily closer to animals than to plants, prompting the recognition of mycology as an independent biological field.

Diversity, physiology and ecological roles

Fungi constitute a distinct kingdom characterised by chitinous cell walls, heterotrophic nutrition, and filamentous growth in the form of hyphae forming mycelia. This morphology enables rapid colonisation of substrates and the penetration of complex organic materials. Their metabolic versatility allows them to degrade lignin, cellulose, petroleum, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and other xenobiotics. As decomposers they are central to biogeochemical cycles, especially the global carbon cycle.
Symbiotic relationships greatly expand fungal ecological roles. Mycorrhizal associations, in which fungal hyphae interface with plant roots, improve plant nutrient uptake, stress tolerance, and disease resistance. Lichens, composed of fungal partners with photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria, colonise diverse habitats and contribute to soil formation. Insects also maintain mutualistic relationships with fungi, allowing complex ecological interactions across trophic levels.

Fungal toxins, secondary metabolites and antibiotics

Many fungi produce biologically active secondary metabolites. The genus Fusarium, for example, synthesises potent mycotoxins implicated in outbreaks of alimentary toxic aleukia. Other fungi generate antibiotics, with the discovery of such compounds revolutionising medicine in the twentieth century. Fungal metabolic pathways remain a major source of pharmaceutical research and drug discovery.
Certain fungi also produce psychoactive or toxic compounds utilised historically in traditional medicine, ritual contexts, or, conversely, associated with poisoning. Ethnomycology explores cultural practices surrounding mushroom use, including edible, medicinal, and spiritual applications.

Pathogenic fungi and phytopathology

Fungal pathogens pose major threats to both plants and animals. Mycology forms the foundation of phytopathology because most plant diseases are caused by fungal species. Pathogens such as Puccinia graminis (stem rust of wheat) and Sarocladium oryzae (sheath rot of rice) can devastate global staple crops, threatening food security. Monoculture agriculture intensifies these risks by facilitating rapid pathogen spread.
The Irish potato famine, caused by the water mould Phytophthora infestans, remains one of the most dramatic examples of a plant–fungal epidemic. Although oomycetes are no longer classified as true fungi, their historically similar treatment places them within the broader purview of phytopathology.
Some fungi also cause diseases in humans and animals, including dermatophytoses, systemic fungal infections, and opportunistic illnesses in immunocompromised individuals. The term ‘pathogenic fungi’ is used specifically for species infecting animals.
Conversely, fungi such as Trichoderma species can suppress plant pathogens and are employed as biological control agents, offering sustainable alternatives to chemical pesticides.

Mycology in food production, fermentation and trade

Fungi, particularly yeasts, have been central to human food production for millennia. More than 500 species of yeast are cultivated for industrial purposes. Saccharomyces cerevisiae remains the dominant species in baking, brewing, and winemaking. Fermentation—a preservation and flavour-development technique—has been used for over 13,000 years and underpins the production of beer, wine, leavened bread, and numerous fermented foods.
Global beer production is dominated by lager yeasts, with ale yeasts and spontaneously fermented beverages constituting smaller but culturally significant sectors. Alcoholic beverages contribute substantially to national economies, making the fungal biotechnology sector economically vital.
The cultivation and trade of edible and medicinal mushrooms form another important industry. Although many species are cultivated commercially, others—such as wild truffles and distinctive forest mushrooms—cannot be reliably grown and are harvested from natural ecosystems. Mushroom foraging thus plays a role in rural economies and local subsistence.

Fieldwork, taxonomy and scientific culture

Mycological field investigations have long traditions. Organised gatherings known as ‘forays’—a term dating to an 1868 event hosted by the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club—bring together specialists and enthusiasts to document fungal diversity. These field activities contribute to taxonomic discovery, ecological monitoring, and public engagement.
Modern fungal taxonomy increasingly relies on DNA sequencing and phylogenomic methods. Molecular classification has replaced earlier schemes such as Saccardo’s spore-based system and clarified relationships among fungi, yeasts, molds, and fungus-like organisms.

Historical uses and continuing research significance

Humans have gathered mushrooms since prehistoric times, as evidenced by early cave art and ancient texts. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, mushrooms featured in literature, cuisine, and folklore, although scientific understanding progressed slowly until the early modern period.
Today, mycology intersects with biotechnology, agriculture, environmental science, and medical research. Fungi serve as model organisms in genetics and cell biology; Saccharomyces cerevisiae was central to early discoveries in molecular genetics, and other fungi provide systems for studying antimicrobial resistance, symbiosis, and developmental biology.
Fungi remain indispensable components of ecosystems and human societies. Their roles as decomposers, pathogens, symbionts, food sources, and biotechnological tools ensure that mycology continues to be a dynamic and influential scientific discipline, contributing wide-ranging insights across the biological sciences.