Maratha Confederacy before British Expansion

The Maratha Confederacy developed into the most formidable indigenous power in eighteenth-century India following the decline of the Mughal Empire. Originating in the Western Deccan, the Marathas expanded across Central, Northern, and Western India. Under the leadership of the Peshwas, the Maratha state transformed from a centralized kingdom into a decentralized confederacy of powerful ruling families.

Rise of the Peshwas and Northward Expansion

The shift of executive authority from the Chhatrapati (monarch) to the Peshwa (prime minister) marked a key transition in Maratha political history. This process began during the reign of Chhatrapati Shahu (1707–1749), grandson of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.

Balaji Vishwanath (1713–1720)

Balaji Vishwanath served as the first hereditary Peshwa, consolidating Shahu’s authority after a civil war with Tarabai of Kolhapur.

• Imperial Farman of 1719: He assisted the Sayyid Brothers in deposing Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar. In return, Mughal authorities recognized Shahu’s sovereignty over the Maratha home territories (Swarajya).
• Revenue Collection Rights: The Mughals granted the Marathas rights to collect Chauth (one-fourth of land revenue) and Sardeshmukhi (an additional ten percent) from the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan.

Baji Rao I (1720–1740)

Baji Rao I succeeded his father and championed the policy of northern expansion (Hindu Pad Padshahi).

• Military Campaigns: He defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad at the Battle of Palkhed (1728) and the Battle of Bhopal (1737), securing control over Malwa, Gujarat, and Bundelkhand.
• Delhi Raid (1737): He led a cavalry strike to the outskirts of Delhi, exposing the military weakness of Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah ‘Rangeela’.
• Defeat of the Portuguese: His brother, Chimaji Appa, captured the strategic fort of Bassein from the Portuguese in 1739.

Balaji Baji Rao / Nana Saheb (1740–1761)

Under Nana Saheb, the Maratha power reached its maximum territorial extent.

• Sangola Agreement (1750): The Peshwa became the official executive head of the Maratha state, shifting the administrative capital permanently to Poona (Pune).
• Trans-Indus Expansion: Maratha forces under Raghunath Rao captured Lahore and Attock in 1758, driving out the Afghan garrisons of Ahmad Shah Durrani.

Structure of the Maratha Confederacy

As the empire expanded, centralized control gave way to a federal setup. Five major ruling families established semi-autonomous principalities across India, operating under the nominal leadership of the Peshwa.

Principalities of the Maratha Confederacy

Administrative, Revenue, and Military Framework

The economic and military systems of the Maratha Confederacy relied heavily on external collection mechanisms and light cavalry tactics.

Revenue Mechanisms

• Chauth: A twenty-five percent tax levied on non-Maratha territories to protect them from Maratha raids.
• Sardeshmukhi: An additional ten percent levy claimed by the Maratha ruler as the hereditary supreme head (Sardeshmukh) of the land.
• Internal Stress: Dependence on plunder and levies in conquered areas created friction with local populations, including the Rajputs, Jats, and Sikhs.

Military Evolution

• Shift in Warfare: Traditional Maratha tactics relied on Bargir light cavalry and Ganimi Kava (guerrilla warfare). During the mid-eighteenth century, leaders like Mahadji Scindia adopted European-style infantry units and heavy artillery trained by French commanders like Benoît de Boigne.
• Loss of Mobility: The move toward heavy conventional armies reduced the mobility that had sustained early Maratha victories.

The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and Reconstruction

The confrontation with Ahmad Shah Durrani at Panipat altered the course of Maratha history.

• The Conflict: On January 14, 1761, Maratha forces led by Sadashivrao Bhau fought Ahmad Shah Abdali’s Afghan coalition at Panipat.
• Casualties: The Marathas suffered massive losses. Key leaders, including Sadashivrao Bhau and the Peshwa’s son Vishwasrao, died on the field.
• Immediate Consequence: The defeat halted Maratha expansion into the Northwest and disrupted central control from Poona.
• Recovery under Madhavrao I (1761–1772): Peshwa Madhavrao I restored order, defeated the Nizam and Hyder Ali, and re-established Maratha influence in North India.
• Return of Emperor: In 1772, Maratha forces under Mahadji Scindia escorted Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II back to Delhi, placing him under Maratha protection.

Fact File and Historical Trivia

In 1719, Balaji Vishwanath secured the release of Shahu’s mother, Yesubai, and wife, Savitribai, who had been held as political hostages in Mughal custody in Delhi since 1689. Ahilyabai Holkar, who ruled Indore from 1767 to 1795, gained widespread renown for rebuilding major Hindu temples across India, including the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi and the Somnath Temple in Gujarat. Mahadji Scindia established a major armaments factory near Agra with the assistance of French military officers, producing field guns and firelock muskets that matched contemporary European standards. The Treaty of Kanakapur (1769) signed between Peshwa Madhavrao I and Janoji Bhonsle settled internal civil rivalries between the Poona administration and the Nagpur branch of the Maratha state. The untimely death of 27-year-old Peshwa Madhavrao I from tuberculosis in 1772 created a succession crisis in Poona, leading directly to British intervention and the outbreak of the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782).