Gandhi in South Africa

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi spent 21 years in South Africa from May 1893 to January 1915. This period transformed him from an inexperienced barrister into a seasoned political strategist. In South Africa, he developed the ideological and practical framework of passive resistance, known as Satyagraha, which he later applied to the Indian freedom struggle.

Arrival and Early Discrimination (1893)

Gandhi arrived in Durban, Natal, in May 1893 as a legal representative for Dada Abdulla & Co., a wealthy Indian Muslim merchant firm. He intended to stay for one year to assist in a commercial lawsuit involving £40,000.

The Pietermaritzburg Incident

On June 7, 1893, while traveling to Pretoria, Gandhi was thrown off a first-class train compartment at Pietermaritzburg railway station because of his race, despite holding a valid ticket. This event served as his primary catalyst to resist racial discrimination. Further humiliation followed in Pretoria, where he faced assault from a stagecoach conductor for refusing to sit on the footboard.

Early Social Organization

In Pretoria, Gandhi convened his first public meeting of the Indian merchant community in late 1893. He urged them to learn English, maintain strict hygiene, and unite across religious lines to protest economic and racial inequalities.

Moderate Phase of Struggle (1894–1906)

The early phase of Gandhi’s political work in South Africa relied on constitutional methods, including petitions, memorandums, letters to British colonial authorities, and press publicity.

Natal Indian Congress (1894)

In 1894, the Natal government introduced the Natal Legislative Assembly Bill to disenfranchise Indian voters. Gandhi postponed his departure to organize resistance. On August 22, 1894, he established the Natal Indian Congress (NIC). He served as its founding secretary, with Dada Abdulla as president.

The Indian Opinion (1903) and Phoenix Settlement (1904)

Gandhi launched the weekly newspaper Indian Opinion in June 1903 to publish updates on Indian civil rights issues. It appeared in Gujarati, English, Hindi, and Tamil. In late 1904, after reading John Ruskin’s book Unto This Last on a train journey from Johannesburg to Durban, Gandhi founded the Phoenix Settlement near Durban. This communal farm emphasized manual labor, self-reliance, and communal living, becoming the printing base for Indian Opinion.

Indian Ambulance Corps (1899–1900, 1906)

To demonstrate Indian loyalty to the British Crown and counter claims that Indians were unfit for physical service, Gandhi organized the Natal Volunteer Indian Ambulance Corps during the Anglo-Boer War (1899–1900). Comprising over 1,100 Indian volunteers, the corps served at the Battle of Spion Kop. For his service, Gandhi received the War Medal. He organized a similar stretcher-bearer unit during the Zulu Rebellion (Bambatha Rebellion) in 1906.

Satyagraha Phase (1906–1914)

Gandhi shifted from constitutional methods to passive resistance, or Satyagraha (“truth-force”), when colonial authorities passed increasingly oppressive laws against Indian residents.

Anti-Asiatic Ordinance and Empire Theatre Meeting (1906)

In August 1906, the Transvaal government introduced the Asiatic Law Amendment Ordinance (Black Act). It mandated that every Indian man, woman, and child over age eight register with authorities, submit fingerprints, and carry a registration certificate at all times. On September 11, 1906, Gandhi organized a historic mass meeting at the Empire Theatre in Johannesburg. Over 3,000 Indians took a solemn oath to defy the registration law and face imprisonment, marking the formal birth of Satyagraha.

Burning of Registration Certificates (1908)

The Transvaal government passed the Transvaal Immigrants Restriction Act in 1907. In response, Gandhi organized a mass gathering at the Hamidia Mosque in Johannesburg on August 16, 1908, where over 2,000 registration certificates were burned in a public cauldron. Gandhi received his first prison sentence in January 1908 at the Johannesburg Fort.

Tolstoy Farm (1910)

To support the families of imprisoned Satyagrahis and maintain a headquarters for his movement, Gandhi established Tolstoy Farm in June 1910 near Lawley, 21 miles from Johannesburg. He purchased the 1,100-acre property with financial assistance from his architect friend Hermann Kallenbach and funds sent by the Indian National Congress and Sir Ratan Tata.

The Final Campaign (1913–1914)

The final phase of Gandhi’s struggle was sparked by three major grievances in 1913.

Key Grievances

• 3-Pound Tax: A yearly poll tax levied on ex-indentured laborers who chose to stay in Natal after their contract expired.
• Immigration Restrictions: Laws banning inter-provincial movement of Indians and restricting free entry into the Transvaal.
• Invalidation of Non-Christian Marriages: A March 1913 ruling by the Cape Supreme Court declared all marriages performed under non-Christian rites (Hindu, Muslim, and Parsi) legally invalid, making Indian children illegitimate.

The Great March (1913)

Gandhi mobilized Indian women and coal miners from Newcastle, Natal. On October 28, 1913, he led the “Great March” of over 2,000 workers from Natal across the border into the Transvaal, intentionally violating provincial entry restrictions. Gandhi was arrested, but the movement spread. Over 20,000 Indian laborers went on strike across mines and plantations.

Indian Relief Act (1914)

The scale of the strikes and pressure from Viceroy Lord Hardinge pushed South African Prime Minister General Jan Smuts to negotiate. Gandhi and Smuts signed the Gandhi-Smuts Agreement in mid-1914. The South African Parliament passed the Indian Relief Act of 1914, which abolished the £3 poll tax, recognized Indian religious marriages, and relaxed entry regulations for educated Indians. Having achieved his primary goals, Gandhi departed South Africa for England in July 1914, eventually reaching India on January 9, 1915.

Important Facts and Figures

Gandhi was arrested four times in South Africa: twice in Johannesburg (1908), once in Volksrust (1909), and once in Dundee (1913). His first term of imprisonment began on January 10, 1908, at the Johannesburg Fort prison. The term “Satyagraha” was coined during a competition run in Indian Opinion. Maganlal Gandhi suggested “Sadagraha” (firmness in a good cause), which Gandhi modified to “Satyagraha” (holding onto truth). Key European allies who supported Gandhi’s efforts in South Africa included Henry Polak, an English journalist who gifted him Ruskin’s book; Hermann Kallenbach, a German-Jewish architect who purchased Tolstoy Farm; and Albert West, who helped run the Indian Opinion press. Gopal Krishna Gokhale visited South Africa in October 1912 as an official guest of the Union Government. His tour helped unify the Indian community and brought national attention in India to the South African struggle. Gokhale became Gandhi’s primary political mentor (guru). Viceroy Lord Hardinge made a public speech in Madras in November 1913 condemning the South African government’s harsh crackdown on peaceful Indian Satyagrahis, a rare instance of a colonial viceroy criticizing another British Dominion administration. The day Gandhi returned to India—January 9, 1915—is celebrated by the Government of India as Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (Non-Resident Indian Day) to honor the contribution of the overseas Indian community.