Rise of Indian Nationalism

The rise of Indian nationalism in the second half of the 19th century was the cumulative outcome of complex political, socio-economic, and administrative factors under British colonial rule.

Western Education and Modern Ideas

The introduction of English education through Macaulay’s Minute of 1835 created a new class of educated Indians. Exposure to European political thought—including the works of John Locke, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Thomas Paine—introduced concepts of liberty, equality, democracy, and self-governance. English served as a common lingua franca, allowing leaders from diverse linguistic regions like Bengal, Bombay, and Madras to communicate and coordinate political strategies.

Economic Exploitation and Political Unification

The British administrative and military apparatus unified the Indian subcontinent under a single political control. The expansion of railways, the telegraph system, and modern postal services physically linked remote corners of the country, enabling faster communication and political organization. Concurrently, nationalist thinkers developed an economic critique of British rule. Dadabhai Naoroji formulated the “Drain of Wealth” theory in his work Poverty and Un-British Rule in India. Economists like Romesh Chunder Dutt (Economic History of India) and M.G. Ranade demonstrated how colonial policies destroyed traditional Indian handicrafts, burdened peasants with high land revenues, and caused recurring famines. This shared economic hardship fostered a common national identity across regions.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements and Modern Press

Reforms spearheaded by the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, and Aligarh Movement generated cultural self-confidence. Movements like the Arya Samaj promoted the slogan “India for Indians,” instilling pride in indigenous heritage and challenging colonial assertions of cultural superiority. The growth of the Indian press played an active role in building public opinion:

• Bengalee: Edited by Surendranath Banerjea in Bengal.
• Amrita Bazar Patrika: Founded by Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh.
• The Hindu and Swadesamitran: Founded by G. Subramania Iyer in Madras.
• Kesari and Mahratta: Launched by Bal Gangadhar Tilak in Bombay Presidency.
• Voice of India: Edited by Dadabhai Naoroji.

Reactionary Policies of Lord Lytton

The administrative measures under Viceroy Lord Lytton (1876–1880) accelerated anti-colonial sentiment:

• Imperial Durbar (1877): Held in Delhi during a devastating famine across southern India.
• Vernacular Press Act (1878): Suppressed local language newspapers while exempting English publications. It was dubbed the “Gagging Act.”
• Arms Act (1878): Criminalized the possession of firearms by Indians without a license, while exempting Europeans.
• Civil Service Age Reduction: Reduced the maximum age limit for the Indian Civil Service examination from 21 to 19 years, making entry extremely difficult for Indian candidates.

The Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883)

Under Viceroy Lord Ripon, Sir C.P. Ilbert drafted a bill to allow Indian magistrates and district judges to try European offenders in criminal cases in country districts. Anglo-Indian communities organized fierce opposition through the Defense Association and forced the government to amend the bill. This controversy demonstrated the power of organized political agitation and highlighted racial discrimination within the colonial judicial system.

Early Political Associations Preceding the Congress

Before the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885, regional political associations emerged across the three major presidencies to voice local grievances.

Early Associations in Bengal

• Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha (1836): Formed by associates of Raja Ram Mohan Roy; one of the earliest public political bodies.
• Zamindari Association / Landholders’ Society (1838): Founded by Dwarakanath Tagore and Radhakanta Deb to protect landholder interests.
• Bengal British India Society (1843): Established to collect and disseminate information regarding the actual condition of the people.
• British Indian Association (1851): Created by merging the Landholders’ Society and the Bengal British India Society, with Radhakanta Deb as President and Debendranath Tagore as Secretary.
• Indian Association of Calcutta (1876): Founded by Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose to unite the educated middle class and campaign against the reduction of civil service age limits.

Associations in Bombay and Madras

• Bombay Association (1852): Founded by Jagannath Shankarsheth and Dadabhai Naoroji to petition the British Parliament for administrative reforms.
• Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870): Established by M.G. Ranade, G.V. Joshi, and S.H. Chiplunkar to serve as a bridge between the government and the rural public.
• Bombay Presidency Association (1885): Formed by Pherozeshah Mehta, K.T. Telang, and Badruddin Tyabji in response to reactionary colonial policies.
• Madras Native Association (1852): Formed by Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty; the first political organization in Madras Presidency.
• Madras Mahajana Sabha (1884): Founded by M. Veeraraghavachariar, B. Subramania Aiyer, and P. Anandacharlu.

Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885)

The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885. Retired British civil servant Allan Octavian Hume played a central role in organizing regional delegates. The first session convened at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay from December 28 to December 31, 1885. Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee presided over this inaugural session, which was attended by 72 delegates from across India.

Early Objectives of the Congress

• Establishing democratic, national political networks.
• Formulating and presenting public demands to the colonial administration.
• Developing a national anti-colonial ideology and fostering national unity.
• Training citizens in modern political activism and public affairs.

The “Safety Valve” Theory vs. Modern Historiography

Early historians and political leaders advanced the “Safety Valve” theory, suggesting Lord Dufferin (the Viceroy) encouraged Hume to form the Congress to provide a peaceful outlet for growing popular discontent, thereby preventing an armed uprising similar to 1857. Lala Lajpat Rai used this theory in his writings (Young India) to critique Moderate methods. Modern historians reject the Safety Valve thesis. Scholars like Bipan Chandra argue that early Indian nationalists used Hume as a “Lightning Conductor” to bring together national political forces without drawing immediate hostility or suppression from colonial authorities.

Key Facts for Quick Revision

The Indian Association of Calcutta organized the All-India National Conference in December 1883 in Calcutta. Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose led this meeting, which served as a direct precursor to the Indian National Congress. Because the second conference convened in Calcutta in December 1885, Banerjea could not attend the inaugural session of the Indian National Congress in Bombay. Kadambini Ganguly, one of India’s first female medical graduates, addressed the 1890 Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress. This marked the early inclusion of women in public political proceedings. The vernacular newspaper Amrita Bazar Patrika converted into an English-language publication overnight in 1878 to bypass the restrictions of the Vernacular Press Act. The British Committee of the Indian National Congress was established in London in 1889. It launched a journal named India in 1890 to educate the British public about Indian political issues and economic grievances. Lord Dufferin initially viewed the Congress with neutrality but later ridiculed it at a St. Andrew’s Day dinner in Calcutta in 1888, calling it a “microscopic minority” representing a tiny fraction of the Indian population.