Anglo-Afghan Relations in the Nineteenth Century

Anglo-Afghan relations during the nineteenth century were defined by the “Great Game”—a geopolitical rivalry between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for dominance over Central Asia. Fearing a Russian invasion of India through the mountain passes of Afghanistan, the British East India Company adopted aggressive foreign policies toward Kabul. This led to diplomatic maneuvers, coercive treaties, and three major Anglo-Afghan wars.

Geopolitical Context and the Great Game

Afghanistan’s geographical position as a gateway to Northern India made it a primary strategic buffer state. British policymakers feared that Russian expansion into the Central Asian khanates (Khiva, Bukhara, and Samarkand) would endanger the security of British India.

• Forward Policy: Advocated by British imperialists like Lord Auckland, Lord Lytton, and Lord Curzon. It emphasized active military intervention in Afghanistan to secure a scientific frontier along the Hindu Kush or the Durand Line.
• Masterly Inactivity Policy: Championed by John Lawrence (Governor-General from 1864 to 1869) and Lord Mayo. It advocated non-interference in Afghan domestic affairs, recognizing whichever ruler successfully established control in Kabul.

First Anglo-Afghan War (1838–1842)

The First Anglo-Afghan War arose from British fears of Russian influence over Dost Mohammad Khan, the Barakzai ruler of Kabul. After Dost Mohammad received Russian envoy Jan Vitkevich in 1837, Governor-General Lord Auckland initiated military intervention.

• Tripartite Treaty (1838): Signed between Lord Auckland, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and deposed Afghan ruler Shah Shuja. The pact aimed to restore Shah Shuja to the throne of Kabul.
• The Invasion (1839): The British Army of the Indus captured Kandahar, Ghazni, and Kabul, placing Shah Shuja on the throne.
• Afghan Uprising (1841–1842): Popular resentment against foreign occupation led to a general revolt led by Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mohammad. British envoys Alexander Burnes and William Macnaghten were killed.
• Retreat from Kabul (1842): General William Elphinstone’s garrison of 4,500 troops and 12,000 camp followers attempted to retreat to Jalalabad. Afghan tribesmen annihilated the column in the mountain passes, leaving Dr. William Brydon as one of the sole survivors.
• Army of Retribution (1842): Generals George Pollock and William Nott reoccupied Kabul, destroyed the Grand Bazaar, and evacuated Afghanistan. Dost Mohammad Khan was released and reclaimed the throne.

Policy of Masterly Inactivity (1864–1876)

Following the death of Dost Mohammad Khan in 1863, a war of succession broke out among his sons. John Lawrence chose a policy of non-intervention, recognizing Sher Ali Khan only after he firmly established authority over Kabul in 1868.

• Principles: Avoided costly military commitments, recognized the de facto ruler, and maintained friendly diplomatic contact without establishing permanent British garrisons in Afghan territory.
• Umballa Conference (1869): Lord Mayo met Amir Sher Ali Khan at Ambala, offering financial subsidies and arms without binding military guarantees.

Second Anglo-Sikh War and Border Adjustments

The British annexation of Punjab in 1849 brought British India’s border directly adjacent to tribal Afghan lands, creating the North-West Frontier. This shift heightened the strategic necessity of controlling the Khyber and Bolan passes.

Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880)

Lord Lytton arrived as Governor-General in 1876 with instructions to enforce a Forward Policy. When Sher Ali received a Russian mission led by General Stolietov in Kabul but turned back a British mission led by Neville Chamberlain, Lytton declared war.

• Invasion (1878): British forces commanded by Frederick Roberts, Samuel Browne, and Donald Stewart entered Afghanistan through three mountain passes.
• Treaty of Gandamak (May 1879): Signed by Amir Yaqub Khan (son of Sher Ali) and Sir Louis Cavagnari.
• Killings of Cavagnari (September 1879): Afghan troops mutinied in Kabul and killed Cavagnari along with his staff, forcing General Roberts to occupy Kabul.
• Battle of Maiwand (July 1880): Afghan forces led by Ayub Khan inflicted a major defeat on a British brigade near Kandahar.
• Battle of Kandahar (September 1880): General Roberts led a forced march from Kabul to Kandahar and defeated Ayub Khan, ending the war.

Treaty of Gandamak (1879) Provisions

The Durand Line and Buffer State Status (1880–1893)

Abdur Rahman Khan, known as the “Iron Amir,” ascended the throne in 1880. The British recognized him as Amir on the condition that he conduct foreign relations exclusively through British India.

• Panjdeh Incident (1885): Russian forces attacked an Afghan garrison at Panjdeh near Herat. War between Britain and Russia was narrowly averted through diplomatic arbitration, leading to the creation of the Afghan Boundary Commission.
• Durand Line Agreement (1893): Signed between Sir Mortimer Durand and Amir Abdur Rahman Khan. It established an official 2,640-kilometer international border separating Afghanistan from British India. The line divided Pashtun tribal lands and created the Tribal Areas (FATA).

Key Milestones in Anglo-Afghan Relations

Fact Summary on Anglo-Afghan Relations

The Treaty of Peshawar in 1855, signed by Sir John Lawrence and Dost Mohammad Khan, re-established official diplomatic ties and bound both parties to respect each other’s territorial integrity. During the Indian Revolt of 1857, Dost Mohammad Khan remained neutral and refused to attack the British along the North-West Frontier, adhering strictly to the terms of the Treaty of Peshawar. Lord Ellenborough ordered the extraction of the wooden doors from the tomb of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1842 under the mistaken belief that they were the original Somnath temple gates taken in 1026. Sir Louis Cavagnari was appointed the first permanent British Resident in Kabul following the Treaty of Gandamak, but his assassination within four months sparked the second phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The Durand Line Agreement of 1893 created a neutral zone that later formed the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) in 1901 under Lord Curzon. The Rawalpindi Treaty of 1919 finally ended the Third Anglo-Afghan War, leading to full British recognition of Afghanistan’s complete independence in domestic and foreign affairs.