Treaty of Watertown

The Treaty of Watertown, signed on 19 July 1776 in the Edmund Fowle House in Watertown, Massachusetts, was the first foreign treaty concluded by the United States following the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. It established a military alliance between the newly declared United States and representatives of the St John’s (Maliseet) and certain Mi’kmaq bands during the early years of the American Revolutionary War. Although several Mi’kmaq groups entered into this agreement, others declined, and the treaty’s authority was later challenged as political conditions changed.
The treaty occupied a significant place in the diplomacy of the emerging United States. It also formed part of a wider network of negotiations between Indigenous nations of the Wabanaki Confederacy and the colonial governments of New England and the British Crown in Nova Scotia. Its wording, context, and legacy all reflect the complexity of Indigenous sovereignty, settler diplomacy, and wartime alliances in the late eighteenth century.

Indigenous Context and Motivations

Before sustained European contact, the Mi’kmaq lived according to cultural principles centred on the supremacy of the Great Spirit, respect for Mother Earth, and communal decision-making. These values shaped their political and military relationships. Their lands extended across parts of present-day Maine, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and the Gaspé Peninsula, forming a key portion of the Wabanaki homeland.
As the Revolutionary War escalated, the United States sought additional manpower and northern allies to weaken British influence in Atlantic Canada. For the Mi’kmaq and allied Wabanaki peoples, the conflict raised questions of sovereignty, security, and historical relations with European powers. Some bands perceived an American alliance as an opportunity to reshape regional power dynamics, challenge British authority, and assert an alternative diplomatic relationship with a new political entity promising democratic governance.
However, Mi’kmaq political organisation emphasised the autonomy of individual bands. Representatives who signed treaties did so as sovereign actors, with the expectation that agreements would later be presented to the Grand Council, the Council of Women, and ultimately the people for full ratification—a process requiring broad consensus.

Negotiations and Signing of the Treaty

The treaty conference was held at a Meeting House in Watertown, where delegates from the St John’s, Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, and several Mi’kmaq bands met members of the Massachusetts Provincial Council. A copy of the freshly approved Declaration of Independence was carried to the meeting and read aloud before its proclamation in Boston. After translation, the Indigenous delegates reportedly approved of its principles of independence and sovereign authority.
The preamble of the treaty incorporated part of the concluding language of the Declaration of Independence, asserting that the colonies—now “Free and Independent States”—possessed the right to declare war, conclude peace, contract alliances, and engage in commerce. Although Massachusetts Bay was still formally a colony in rebellion, it acted on behalf of itself and the other United States in concluding the treaty.
Under its military provisions, the Mi’kmaq and allied Wabanaki signatories pledged to supply 600 fighters for service in the Continental Army. This represented a substantial reduction from earlier estimates during the French and Indian War, when roughly 1,200 warriors had been available. Nonetheless, the promised force constituted a valuable addition to American efforts in the northeast, particularly given the 5,000 British troops stationed in Nova Scotia by 1778.
Three Indigenous delegates volunteered for service immediately, with pay to begin upon their arrival at General Washington’s camp in New York. Article Eight of the treaty mentioned compensation for services but did not specify payment terms in detail. The treaty rested heavily on mutual friendship and the expectation of reciprocal military assistance.

Military Contributions and Wartime Activity

Fighting units drawn from the Wabanaki Confederacy played an active role in regional operations. A battalion formed from allied tribal forces participated in the Battle of Fort Cumberland from November to December 1776, a campaign aiming to secure the eastern frontier. Other warriors protected the Maine borderlands and carried out raids against British installations, leveraging their intimate knowledge of local geography and long-established tactical traditions.
Wabanaki battle practices emphasised adaptability, skilful use of terrain, and a sense of duty to their communities. These attributes proved valuable to the Continental forces operating in the difficult frontier environment. Many individual Mi’kmaq warriors continued to serve even after political divisions within their communities led to a reconsideration of the treaty itself.

Reversal of Allegiances and Later Developments

The alliance created by the Treaty of Watertown did not remain stable. In June 1779 the Mi’kmaq delivered the treaty to Nova Scotia’s Governor Michael Francklin, signalling a formal return of loyalty to the British Crown. This shift was partly influenced by Britain’s decisive victory during the Penobscot Expedition, which strengthened British control in the region.
Later that year, on 24 September 1779, Mi’kmaq in present-day New Brunswick renounced the treaty altogether and entered into a formal agreement with the British. These rapid changes in allegiance illustrate the complex and pragmatic diplomacy of Indigenous nations, who navigated between competing colonial powers while preserving their autonomy.
Although the Watertown Treaty had been accepted by the Maliseet bands through a plebiscite shortly after its signing, it never achieved full and complete ratification by all Mi’kmaq districts according to traditional political protocols. In modern times, however, the treaty has acquired renewed symbolic significance and is often referenced as the first diplomatic agreement between the United States and an Indigenous nation.

Legacy and Modern Recognition

The Treaty of Watertown continues to hold contemporary relevance. Mi’kmaq individuals, irrespective of national citizenship, are permitted to serve in the United States Armed Forces, and many have participated in conflicts from the late twentieth century to the present. Their service is commemorated within Mi’kmaq communities and recognised in Treaty Day celebrations held annually in Watertown, Massachusetts since 1995.
The Wabanaki peoples—often called the “People of the Dawn” or “People of the Dawn Land”—retain federal recognition in the United States. Their enduring cultural presence in Maine and the broader northeast has ensured that the treaty remains part of both regional heritage and national historical memory. The Watertown Treaty continues to be studied as a foundational example of early American-Indigenous diplomacy and as evidence of the complex political landscape surrounding the struggle for independence.