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The Roman Empire declined by the end of the 5th century A.D. It had resulted in the neglect of classical literature and arts. But these treasures of culture were preserved in the Eastern Roman Empire with its capital at Constantinople.

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The Elizabethan era marked the beginning of the English Renaissance. It saw dramatists like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe and Charles Webster; poets like Edmund Spenser, Sydney and Ben Johnson.

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Copernicus (1473-1543) established the heliocentric theory. According to this theory the heavenly bodies do not revolve about the earth as believed during that period but around the sun.

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Newton (1642-1727) concluded that the movements of all celestial bodies were controlled by gravitation. With the new astronomical knowledge that was available, the old Julian calendar was reformed in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII.

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A series of Trade Acts were also passed to control the trade in the colonies. For example, the Hat Act of 1732 prohibited the import of hats from one colony to the other. The Iron Act 1750 stopped the large-scale production of iron in the colonies. These Acts were opposed by the colonies.

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The second Continental Congress met in May 1775 at Philadelphia. Delegates from all the thirteen colonies attended this Congress. Prominent leaders like Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin participated in it. George Washington was made the Commander-in-Chief of the American army.

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Diderot and D’ Alembert published the Encyclopedia. It contained several essays and articles written by revolutionary thinkers.

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Arkwright improved the ‘spinning jenny’ in 1769. Compton improved it still further in 1779. In 1785, Cartwright invented the power loom.

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The immediate cause was the assassination of Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand who was heir to the Austrian throne. Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated by Serbians in the Bosnian capital Sarajevo when they paid a visit to this city on 28th June 1914. The news of this murder shocked many countries. Austria-Hungary was already sick of Serbia and she decided to take advantage of the new situation to crush her. The murder of their crown prince and his wife resulted in an ultimatum being sent to Serbia for immediate compliance of certain terms. Serbia’s reply did not pacify Austria-Hungary. Hence, Austria-Hungary backed by Germany declared war on Serbia. Russia mobilised her forces in favour of Serbia.

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The Lusitania ship was drowned by a German submarine and consequently many Americans lost their lives. This resulted in the declaration of war against Germany by the U.S.A. In spite of best efforts, Germany could not stand and ultimately she surrendered in November 1919.