Non-Cooperation Movement under Gandhi

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922) was the first nationwide mass movement led by Mahatma Gandhi. It marked a transition in Indian national politics from constitutional agitation to active mass resistance against British colonial rule.

Factors Leading to the Movement

• Rowlatt Act (1919): Authorised the imperial government to detain political suspects without trial for up to two years, curbing civil liberties.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered troops to fire on an unarmed gathering in Amritsar on April 13, 1919, killing hundreds of peaceful protesters.
• Hunter Committee Report: The official commission of inquiry into the Punjab disturbances failed to punish General Dyer or hold senior officials accountable.
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): Introduced “Dyarchy” in the provinces, keeping key portfolios like finance and police under appointed British governors while transferring limited departments to elected Indian ministers.
• Economic Distress: Post-World War I inflation, heavy taxation, high prices of essential commodities, and crop failures created widespread unrest among workers, peasants, and small traders.
• Khilafat Issue: The dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire after World War I threatened the position of the Caliph (Khalifa), creating deep resentment among Indian Muslims.

Sanction and Launch of the Movement

Mahatma Gandhi saw the Khilafat grievance as a rare opportunity to build durable Hindu-Muslim unity against imperial rule. He convinced Congress leaders to adopt a joint Non-Cooperation program.

Key Sessions and Decisions

• All India Khilafat Conference (November 1919, Delhi): Elected Gandhi as its president and threatened to stop cooperating with the government if harsh peace terms were imposed on Turkey.
• Allahabad Conference (June 1920): The Central Khilafat Committee approved a full non-cooperation program and asked Gandhi to lead it.
• Calcutta Special Session (September 1920): Congress approved Gandhi’s resolution on non-cooperation to address three main issues: the Punjab wrongs, the Khilafat grievance, and the attainment of Swaraj.
• Nagpur Annual Session (December 1920): Reaffirmed the program and altered the Congress constitution. The goal was changed from attaining self-government through constitutional means to achieving Swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means.

Program of Non-Cooperation

The movement operated on a dual strategy: negative boycotts to disrupt British administration, and positive constructive work to build national self-reliance.

Constructive and Boycott Components

• Surrender of Titles and Honors: Individuals returned official decorations, titles, and honorary positions awarded by the Crown.
• Boycott of Government Institutions: Lawyers ceased practice in law courts, students left government-run schools and colleges, and voters boycotted elections held under the Government of India Act 1919.
• Boycott of Foreign Goods: Public bonfires of foreign cloth were organized across urban centers, and picketing of shops selling foreign goods and alcohol became routine.
• Promotion of Swadeshi: Production of hand-spun Khadi cloth was encouraged, making the spinning wheel (Charkha) a symbol of national self-reliance.
• National Educational Institutions: Alternative national schools and universities were established to provide education free from government control.
• Tilak Swaraj Fund: Created to collect funds for the movement, raising over one crore rupees within a few months.

Spread and Regional Variations

The movement mobilized diverse social groups across different provinces, each adapting the program to local economic and political issues.

Major Events and Sub-Movements

Establishment of National Educational Institutions

The movement led to the creation of alternative educational institutions independent of imperial funding and control.

• Jamia Millia Islamia: Established at Aligarh in October 1920, later moved to Delhi. Hakim Ajmal Khan served as its first Chancellor and Maulana Muhammad Ali as its first Vice-Chancellor.
• Kashi Vidyapith: Founded in Varanasi in February 1921 by Babu Shiv Prasad Gupta and Bhagwan Das.
• Gujarat Vidyapith: Founded by Mahatma Gandhi in Ahmedabad in October 1920 to impart education in Indian languages.
• Bihar Vidyapith: Inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in Patna in February 1921.

Visit of the Prince of Wales (November 1921)

The Prince of Wales arrived in India on November 17, 1921. Congress called for a total nationwide strike (hartal). His arrival in Bombay was met with empty streets, closed markets, and public demonstrations, leading to clashes between protesters and police.

Akali Movement in Punjab

In Punjab, the Akali Movement sought to liberate Sikh Gurdwaras from corrupt control of government-supported Mahants. The Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC) and the Akali Dal worked closely with Congress during the non-cooperation campaign.

Withdrawal of the Movement

The movement ended abruptly following an outbreak of political violence in the United Provinces.

The Chauri Chaura Incident

On February 5, 1922, a procession of peaceful protesters at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur district, United Provinces, was provoked by local police. The crowd retaliated by surrounding the police station and setting it on fire, killing 22 policemen.

Bardoli Resolution (February 1922)

Distressed by the eruption of violence, Gandhi concluded that the masses had not yet fully understood non-violent principles. On February 12, 1922, the Congress Working Committee met at Bardoli, Gujarat, and passed a resolution formally suspending the Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhi was arrested on March 10, 1922, and sentenced to six years in prison by Judge C.N. Broomfield for sedition under Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code.

Impact and Assessment

The Non-Cooperation Movement altered the character of the Indian independence movement.

• Mass Mobilisation: It expanded active participation beyond the urban educated middle class to include peasants, artisans, workers, women, and traders across rural and urban regions.
• Institutional Restructuring: The Congress transformed from a deliberative assembly meeting annually into a functional mass political party with hierarchical committees down to the village level.
• Loss of Colonial Prestige: It eroded public fear of the imperial state, its courts, prisons, and administrative authority.
• Emergence of Internal Divisions: The sudden withdrawal caused disappointment among younger nationalist leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, and led directly to the formation of the Swaraj Party inside Congress.

Essential Historical Facts

The Nagpur Session of December 1920 reduced the annual Congress membership fee to four annas (25 paise) to enable poorer citizens to join the party. It established Provincial Congress Committees on a linguistic basis rather than administrative boundaries. Mahatma Gandhi returned his Kaisar-i-Hind gold medal, awarded by the British for his ambulance corps work during the Boer War, on August 1, 1920, to mark the start of the movement. Bal Gangadhar Tilak passed away on the exact day the movement was launched, August 1, 1920. Subhas Chandra Bose resigned from the Indian Civil Service (ICS) in 1921 to join the movement and was appointed Principal of the newly established National College in Calcutta. Chittaranjan Das gave up a lucrative legal practice valued at thousands of rupees per month to direct the movement in Bengal. The Congress Volunteer Corps was declared illegal by the imperial administration in November 1921, leading to the arrest of over 30,000 activists across India before the end of that year. Following the suspension of the movement, Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party (commonly known as the Swaraj Party) in December 1922 to contest elections under the Government of India Act 1919 and wreck the legislative councils from within.