Natural resource

Natural resources are materials, substances and living components derived directly from the environment and used by humans with minimal modification. They encompass the full range of elements that sustain ecological systems and underpin economic activity, including land, water, air, minerals, vegetation and wildlife. These resources form part of humanity’s natural heritage, and many are protected within reserves or conservation areas due to their ecological, cultural or scientific significance. Undisturbed environments, such as rainforests in the Marquesas Islands or waterfalls in parts of Malaysia, illustrate the role natural resources play in supporting biodiversity, nutrient cycles and human livelihoods.

Nature and Importance of Natural Resources

Natural resources contribute to human welfare by providing essential materials for survival—such as freshwater, timber and food—and by enabling a wide array of economic activities. Forest ecosystems supply raw materials, regulate climate, preserve soil fertility and provide habitat for flora, fauna and indigenous communities. Aquatic resources, ranging from rivers to ocean systems, support fisheries, biodiversity and recreational use while offering potential for renewable energy generation through hydroelectric and wave-power technologies.
Some natural resources are extracted directly for industrial use. Minerals, fossil fuels, metals and rare-earth elements require processing but are fundamental to global manufacturing, energy systems and technological development. The ways in which these resources are allocated, extracted and managed frequently lie at the centre of political and economic contention, especially in situations involving scarcity, depletion or inequitable access.

Biotic and Abiotic Origins

A widely used method of classification distinguishes resources by their origin:

• Biotic resources are derived from living organisms or organic materials. These include forests, fish stocks, livestock and agricultural crops. Fossil fuels, though no longer living, are classed as biotic because they originate from decomposed organic matter.
• Abiotic resources emerge from non-living, inorganic sources such as landforms, air, water, minerals and heavy metals. These underpin industrial production and infrastructure development.

This distinction highlights the varied ecological roles and economic uses of resources, as well as the different pressures associated with their extraction and management.

Stages of Development

Resources can also be classified according to their level of development and utilisation:

• Potential resources have been identified but remain unused due to technological, economic or logistical constraints. Examples include unexploited petroleum reserves in sedimentary basins.
• Actual resources are quantified, assessed and actively used. Their exploitation depends on the available technology and the feasibility of extraction or processing.
• Reserves represent the portion of actual resources that can be extracted profitably in the future under prevailing economic conditions.
• Stocks include identified resources that cannot currently be used due to insufficient technology, such as hydrogen-based fuels awaiting viable conversion systems.

Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

Renewability provides another important basis for classification:

• Renewable resources regenerate naturally, sometimes continuously, as with solar energy, wind, air and flowing water. Although many renewable resources are abundant, they can be depleted if consumption exceeds natural replenishment rates. Forests, fisheries and freshwater systems are especially vulnerable to overuse.
• Non-renewable resources form over geological timescales and cannot be replenished within a human timeframe. Minerals, fossil fuels and radioactive elements fall into this category. While metal ores may be recycled to some degree, fuels such as coal and petroleum cannot be renewed once consumed.

The balance between consumption and replenishment is central to sustainable resource management, and the rapid depletion of many non-renewable reserves constitutes a pressing global challenge.

Ownership Categories

Natural resources vary in terms of ownership and access:

• Individual resources include privately owned land, buildings, farms and small water bodies.
• Community resources are accessible to all members of a community, such as communal grazing areas or public burial grounds.
• National resources belong to the state and are managed for public welfare. National borders and exclusive economic zones determine control over forests, minerals and territorial waters.
• International resources include areas beyond national jurisdiction, such as international waters, and are governed by global agreements and regulatory bodies.

These distinctions shape the legal frameworks that regulate extraction, usage rights and conservation responsibilities.

Extraction and Economic Significance

Resource extraction is central to the primary sector of the economy, encompassing activities such as mining, forestry, hunting, fishing and petroleum exploitation. Extracted materials undergo processing before entering industrial value chains. While resource-rich countries often benefit from increased revenues, extraction can generate severe social and environmental challenges. Sudden resource booms may create inflationary pressures, undermine other economic sectors and foster corruption or inequality—a combination sometimes referred to as the resource curse.
The impacts of extraction vary widely across countries. In less-developed economies, extractive industries account for substantial national income but do not always translate into long-term growth or equitable development. Some multinational corporations are criticised for prioritising short-term profit, while host governments may focus on immediate revenue. Efforts to improve governance include transparency initiatives, revenue accountability systems and community participation in decision-making. Norway is frequently cited as a model of effective resource management due to its strong institutions, robust civil society and adherence to global governance standards.
Natural resources can also affect political stability. In countries with weak institutions or social divisions, competition over valuable resources may trigger or intensify conflict, influencing both the outbreak and duration of civil wars.

Resource Depletion and Sustainable Development

Concerns about resource depletion have prompted international organisations and national governments to focus on sustainable use. Coastal depletion, deforestation, soil degradation, groundwater exhaustion and declining biodiversity highlight the urgency of resource management. The United Nations has addressed these concerns through global frameworks such as Agenda 21, which outlines strategies for maintaining environmental and economic sustainability.
Sustainable development emphasises meeting contemporary needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own. Achieving this requires policies that address resource depletion, reduce externalities and promote renewable alternatives. Scholars propose models such as circular economies, which prioritise reuse, recycling and minimising waste over reliance on extractive industries.
Natural resources therefore play a fundamental role in ecological systems, economic development and social well-being. Their classification, extraction and management are critical components of global sustainability efforts, requiring cooperation across scientific, political and economic domains.