Nanomedicine

Nanomedicine is a rapidly advancing field that applies the principles and materials of nanotechnology to medical science. By harnessing structures and devices measured in nanometres, it aims to develop innovative diagnostic tools, therapeutic systems, and biological interfaces. Owing to their scale—comparable to proteins, DNA and cellular structures—nanomaterials can be engineered to interact precisely with biological systems, offering new possibilities in disease detection, targeted intervention, and regenerative medicine.

Foundations and scientific context

Nanomedicine originates from broader nanoscience, inspired partly by early conceptual work such as Richard Feynman’s reflections on nanoscale engineering. The field involves the translation of nanoscale phenomena into clinical applications, including bioengineered materials, nanoelectronics-based sensors, and explorations of molecular-scale machinery. Modern nanomedicine frequently makes use of nanomaterials whose physical dimensions fall within billionths of a metre, enabling them to act at the molecular and cellular levels.
Functionalities can be imparted to nanostructures by incorporating biological molecules or by designing surfaces that mimic, interact with, or regulate cellular components. This integration has driven the development of contrast agents for imaging, analytical devices for molecular detection, and targeted therapeutic platforms capable of selective interaction with diseased tissues. The pharmaceutical sector anticipates continued expansion of these technologies in drug development, in vivo imaging and precision therapies.

Industrial growth and global investment

The economic growth of nanomedicine has been significant. The global market exceeded £18 billion in 2023 and is projected to surpass £500 billion within the next decade. Investment in nanotechnology research and product development continues to rise, with annual global funding increasing steadily.
Large pharmaceutical and biotechnology firms play an important role in advancing nanomedical innovation. Companies such as Bristol-Myers Squibb explore targeted delivery systems for immunological disorders, while Moderna has applied lipid nanoparticle technology extensively in the development of mRNA therapeutics. Other firms, including Nanobiotix, Generation Bio and Jazz Pharmaceuticals, focus on cancer therapy, gene delivery platforms and advanced nanosuspensions. Organisations such as Cytiva support the broader biotechnology landscape by producing non-viral delivery systems for nucleic acid medicines.

Principles and practice of targeted drug delivery

One of the most established applications of nanomedicine is targeted drug delivery. The concept, proposed in the 1970s with early work on liposome-based chemotherapy, involves guiding therapeutic compounds specifically to diseased tissues while minimising systemic exposure. Nanoparticles can be engineered to release their contents in response to targeted signals, such as pH changes, temperature variations or enzymatic activity.
Targeted delivery offers several advantages:

• Greater drug concentration in diseased tissues, reducing overall dosage requirements.
• Reduced side effects, owing to decreased exposure of healthy cells to active compounds.
• Enhanced bioavailability and improved pharmacokinetics through controlled release.
• Less invasive treatment, as nanoscale carriers can circulate or be implanted with minimal disruption.

Nanoparticle systems—including lipid vesicles, polymeric particles and nanocrystals—have been developed to traverse cellular membranes and deliver drugs into intracellular compartments. Despite these advances, the biodistribution of nanoparticles remains variable because the body’s physiological responses can redirect or sequester nanomaterials. Work continues to improve targeting accuracy and reduce off-target accumulation.

Challenges and nanotoxicology

As nanomedicine expands, understanding nanotoxicology becomes essential. Nanoparticles vary widely in shape, size, composition and surface chemistry, and these characteristics influence how they distribute, accumulate and degrade within the body. Non-biodegradable particles may accumulate particularly in organs such as the liver and spleen, causing inflammation or tissue damage in experimental models. Iron oxide nanoparticles, for instance, may influence tumour growth if exposed to inappropriate magnetic fields, necessitating careful design of external manipulation systems.
Understanding these interactions is crucial for balancing therapeutic benefits with safety concerns. Research efforts focus on biocompatible materials, degradable nanostructures and strategies to mitigate long-term accumulation.

Expanding therapeutic and diagnostic systems

Nanomedicine encompasses a diverse range of experimental and emerging technologies:

• Lipid nanotechnologies, indispensable in mRNA vaccine development, underpin many nanocarriers and biosensors.
• Self-assembling RNA nanoparticles, engineered as potential tumour-shrinking agents.
• Nanoelectromechanical systems, being studied for controlled drug release and diagnostic monitoring.
• Aquasomes, comprising a nanocrystalline core surrounded by protective oligomers, designed to preserve delicate therapeutic molecules during delivery.

Nanoparticles also hold promise for tackling antimicrobial resistance by bypassing multidrug efflux mechanisms or directly disrupting microbial processes.

Notable clinical applications

Several nanotechnology-based medicines have achieved regulatory approval or advanced to clinical trials:

• Liposomal formulations of anticancer drugs, used initially in the treatment of Kaposi’s sarcoma and later expanded to conditions such as ovarian cancer and multiple myeloma. Liposomes, composed of lipid bilayers surrounding aqueous compartments, extend the circulation time of drugs and reduce cardiotoxicity.
• Onivyde, a liposomal irinotecan preparation approved for metastatic pancreatic cancer.
• Nanocrystal drugs that enhance solubility and absorption, widely used in post-transplant immunosuppression.
• Extended-release nanosuspensions, used in combination antiretroviral therapies to provide long-acting injectable treatments for HIV-1 infection.

These therapies highlight the ability of nanoscale technologies to redefine traditional pharmacological approaches.

Prospects and future directions

Nanomedicine continues to expand across diagnostic imaging, regenerative medicine, biosensing, oncology and gene therapy. Advances in nanofabrication, molecular engineering and bioinformatics hold the potential for increasingly sophisticated “smart” materials capable of autonomous targeting, real-time monitoring and adaptive therapeutic responses. As the field progresses, robust evaluation frameworks and enhanced understanding of biocompatibility will remain essential for ensuring safe and effective clinical translation.