Myanmar

Myanmar, officially known as the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, is a country in South-East Asia bordered by Bangladesh and India to the north-west, China to the north-east, Laos and Thailand to the east, and the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal to the south. The capital city is Naypyidaw, while Yangon (formerly Rangoon) is the largest city and principal commercial centre. Myanmar occupies a strategically significant position linking South Asia and South-East Asia and has a diverse cultural and ethnic composition.

Geography and Natural Features

Myanmar covers an area of approximately 676,578 square kilometres, making it the largest country in mainland South-East Asia. Its terrain is varied, consisting of mountain ranges, river valleys, plateaus, and coastal plains.
Major geographical features include:

• The Arakan (Rakhine) Yoma range in the west
• The Shan Plateau in the east
• The Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) River, the country’s principal waterway
• The Salween (Thanlwin) and Sittaung rivers
• A long coastline stretching over 1,900 kilometres

The Irrawaddy River basin forms the agricultural heartland of Myanmar. The climate is predominantly tropical monsoon, with three main seasons: a hot season, a rainy monsoon season, and a cooler dry season. Cyclones periodically affect coastal areas, particularly in the Bay of Bengal.

Historical Background

Myanmar’s history dates back over two millennia, with early civilisations such as the Pyu city-states and the Mon kingdoms. The Pagan Kingdom (9th–13th centuries) marked the first major unification of the region and established Theravada Buddhism as a central cultural and religious force.
Subsequent centuries saw shifting power among various dynasties until the 19th century, when a series of Anglo-Burmese Wars resulted in the annexation of Burma by the British Empire. It became a province of British India and later a separate colony.
During the Second World War, Burma was occupied by Japan before being retaken by Allied forces. The country gained independence from Britain on 4 January 1948 as the Union of Burma.
Post-independence years were marked by ethnic insurgencies and political instability. In 1962, a military coup led by General Ne Win established military rule under a socialist system. The country remained under military dominance for decades.

Political Developments and Military Rule

Myanmar’s political system has been characterised by alternating periods of military and limited civilian rule. In 1988, nationwide protests demanding democratic reforms were suppressed by the military, which established the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC).
Multiparty elections were held in 1990, but the military refused to recognise the results, in which the National League for Democracy (NLD) won a decisive victory. Political opposition figures, including Aung San Suu Kyi, faced detention.
In 2011, a quasi-civilian government initiated reforms, leading to greater political openness. The NLD won the 2015 general election, and Aung San Suu Kyi became State Counsellor, effectively the head of government.
However, on 1 February 2021, the military (Tatmadaw) seized power in a coup, citing alleged electoral irregularities. The coup triggered widespread protests, civil disobedience, and armed resistance in parts of the country. Political instability and conflict have continued since.

Ethnic Diversity and Society

Myanmar is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in Asia. The majority ethnic group is the Bamar (Burman), but there are numerous recognised ethnic minorities, including:

• Shan
• Karen
• Rakhine
• Kachin
• Chin
• Mon

Many ethnic minority groups have maintained distinct languages, cultures, and armed organisations. Long-standing conflicts between ethnic armed groups and the central government have shaped the country’s modern history.
Burmese (Myanmar language) is the official language. English is widely taught in schools and used in business and diplomacy.
Theravada Buddhism is the dominant religion, practised by the majority of the population. Significant minority religions include Christianity, Islam, and traditional animist beliefs.

Economy and Resources

Myanmar possesses abundant natural resources, including natural gas, oil, jade, timber, and precious stones. Agriculture remains a major economic sector, employing a large proportion of the population.
Key economic activities include:

• Rice cultivation in the Irrawaddy Delta
• Extraction of natural gas for export
• Gemstone and jade mining
• Timber and forestry

Despite its resource wealth, Myanmar remains a lower-middle-income country. Decades of isolation, sanctions, and internal conflict have limited economic development. Infrastructure and financial systems remain underdeveloped.
International sanctions imposed following the 2021 military coup have further constrained economic growth and foreign investment.

Human Rights and International Relations

Myanmar’s human rights record has attracted significant international attention. In particular, the treatment of the Rohingya Muslim minority in Rakhine State has been widely condemned. In 2017, military operations led to the displacement of hundreds of thousands of Rohingya refugees into neighbouring Bangladesh.
International organisations and governments have accused Myanmar’s military of serious human rights violations, including violence against civilians. Legal proceedings concerning alleged acts of genocide have been initiated at international courts.
Myanmar is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), although its participation has been affected by political developments since 2021. Relations with neighbouring countries, especially China and India, are influenced by strategic and economic considerations.

Culture and Heritage

Myanmar’s cultural heritage is deeply influenced by Buddhism. Architectural landmarks such as the ancient temples of Bagan reflect the historical prominence of religious art and architecture. Pagodas, monasteries, and stupas are central features of urban and rural landscapes.
Traditional arts include lacquerware, weaving, wood carving, and classical dance. Festivals such as Thingyan (the Burmese New Year water festival) play an important role in social and religious life.