Mass Politics after Non-Cooperation Movement
The suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922 created a temporary lull in mainstream nationalist politics. Mahatma Gandhi’s arrest in March 1922 shifted national attention toward two distinct strategies inside the Congress: council entry by Swarajists and rural constructive work by No-Changers. Beyond the Congress framework, the 1920s witnessed the growth of new social movements, left-wing ideology, revolutionary groups, caste reform agitations, and peasant organization.
Multi-Dimensional Expansion of Public Mobilisation
- Left-Wing Activism: Marxist ideas gained ground among youth, workers, and peasants, leading to the formation of communist and socialist organizations.
- Revolutionary Youth Groups: Young nationalists frustrated by the suspension of non-violent agitation revived underground revolutionary networks across Northern India and Bengal.
- Peasant and Agrarian Resistance: Rural populations organized against high land revenue, tenant evictions, and feudal levies independent of urban political control.
- Working-Class Movement: Trade unions expanded across industrial centers, utilizing organized strikes to demand wage increases and labor rights.
- Social Equality Agitations: Anti-caste movements challenged social disabilities and temple entry restrictions across Western and Southern India.
Growth of Left-Wing Ideology and Working-Class Action
Post-1922 politics saw the rise of socialist and communist groups influenced by the 1917 Russian Revolution. Young Congress leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose advocated anti-imperialism combined with social radicalism.
Communist Movement and Trade Unionism
- Formation of CPI: The Communist Party of India was formally organized at the Kanpur Communist Conference in December 1925, chaired by M. Singaravelu.
- Workers and Peasants Parties (WPP): Labor organizers established WPP branches in Bengal, Bombay, Punjab, and the United Provinces between 1926 and 1928 to build mass political bases among laborers.
- Industrial Strike Wave: Over 31 million workdays were lost to strikes in 1928. The Girni Kamgar Union led a six-month textile strike in Bombay.
- State Repression: Colonial authorities attempted to curb leftist influence through conspiracy trials, including the Peshawar Conspiracy Cases (1922–1924), Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case (1924), and Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929).
Revolutionary Nationalism in Northern India and Bengal
Youth activists disillusioned with non-violent methods turned toward revolutionary actions to overthrow imperial authority.
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)
- Formation of HRA: Ram Prasad Bismil, Sachindra Nath Sanyal, and Jogesh Chandra Chatterji founded the Hindustan Republican Association in Kanpur in October 1924.
- Kakori Train Action (1925): HRA members intercepted an official treasury train near Kakori on August 9, 1925. Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Roshan Singh, and Rajendra Lahiri were later hanged.
- Reorganization into HSRA: Under Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, and Sukhdev, the organization added “Socialist” to its name at Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi, in September 1928.
- Assassination of Saunders (1928): Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Azad killed Assistant Superintendent of Police J.P. Saunders in Lahore to avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai.
- Central Assembly Bombing (1929): Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw smoke bombs into the Central Legislative Assembly on April 8, 1929, to protest the Public Safety Bill and Trade Disputes Bill.
Bengal Revolutionary Surge
- Surya Sen and Indian Republican Army: Surya Sen (Masterda) led the Chittagong Armoury Raid on April 18, 1930, establishing a short-lived local revolutionary government.
- Female Revolutionary Activism: Pritilata Waddedar led the attack on the Pahartali European Club, while Kalpana Dutt assisted in armed resistance. Bina Das shot Bengal Governor Stanley Jackson during a university convocation in 1932.
Agrarian and Caste Reform Movements
The 1920s witnessed widespread mobilization among rural peasants and marginalized communities asserting civil rights.
| Movement | Region & Year | Primary Leaders | Core Objective / Demand |
| Rampa Rebellion | Andhra Pradesh (1922–24) | Alluri Sitarama Raju | Tribal resistance against Madras Forest Act restrictions and muttadari exploitation. |
| Vaikom Satyagraha | Travancore (1924–25) | K. Kelappan, T.K. Madhavan, K.P. Kesava Menon | Civil rights campaign securing road access around Vaikom Temple for lower castes. |
| Self-Respect Movement | Tamil Nadu (1925) | E.V. Ramasamy Periyar | Anti-Brahmin movement demanding equal social status, self-respect marriages, and rationalism. |
| Mahad Satyagraha | Maharashtra (1927) | Dr. B.R. Ambedkar | Assertion of untouchable rights to draw water from the public Chavdar Tank in Mahad. |
| Bardoli Satyagraha | Gujarat (1928) | Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel | No-tax campaign forcing the cancellation of an unfair 22% land revenue hike. |
Boycott of Simon Commission and All-Parties Consensus
The British government appointed the Indian Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon in November 1927 to review the working of the Government of India Act 1919. Because the commission excluded Indian members, all major political parties organized a boycott.
Simon Boycott and Nehru Report
- Protest Demonstrations: The Commission landed in Bombay on February 3, 1928, facing nationwide general strikes (hartals) and black flag demonstrations carrying the slogan “Simon Go Back”.
- Lala Lajpat Rai’s Martyrdom: Police lathi-charged a peaceful protest in Lahore on October 30, 1928, injuring Lala Lajpat Rai, who died on November 17, 1928.
- Nehru Report (1928): An All-Parties Conference chaired by Motilal Nehru drafted a constitutional blueprint demanding Dominion Status, universal adult suffrage, joint electorates, and fundamental rights.
- Lahore Congress Session (1929): Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress rejected Dominion Status, declared Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as its goal, and authorized Mahatma Gandhi to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Key Historical Facts
M.N. Roy founded the emigre Communist Party of India in Tashkent in October 1920 alongside Evelyn Roy, Abani Mukherji, and Rosa Fitingof. S.A. Dange published The Socialist, the first Marxist journal in India, from Bombay in 1922. The All India Trade Union Congress held its first session in Bombay in October 1920, with Lala Lajpat Rai as President. By 1928, radical union leaders held key positions within AITUC, leading to the party’s split at the Nagpur Session in 1929 under Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar founded the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha in Bombay in July 1924 to promote education, socio-economic upliftment, and political rights for depressed classes. He publicly burned the Manusmriti during the Mahad agitation on December 25, 1927. The Bardoli Satyagraha succeeded after the Broomfield-Maxwell Committee inquiry recommended reducing the land revenue enhancement rate from 22% to 6.03%. The Congress celebrated January 26, 1930, as the first Purna Swaraj Day across the country, with citizens taking a pledge to withdraw cooperation from colonial rule, paving the way for the Salt March in March 1930.
