Maratha Confederacy and Eighteenth-Century Politics

The political structure of the Maratha state underwent a radical shift in the early eighteenth century. Following Chhatrapati Shahu’s release from Mughal custody in 1707, a civil war broke out between Shahu and his aunt Tarabai. Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath as the Peshwa (Prime Minister) in 1713. Balaji Vishwanath made the office of the Peshwa hereditary and transferred effective executive authority from the Chhatrapati at Satara to the Peshwa at Pune. Under Baji Rao I (1720–1740), the Maratha state expanded into northern and central India. Baji Rao I instituted the confederacy system, assigning distinct territorial spheres of influence to military generals. This decentralized structure transformed the unified Maratha kingdom into a pentarchy bound by allegiance to the Peshwa.

Five Ruling Houses of the Maratha Confederacy

Core Ruling Dynasties

• Peshwa of Pune: Headed the confederacy and managed administrative and military affairs across central territories.
• Scindia (Shinde) of Gwalior: Controlled Ujjain and Gwalior; dominated North Indian politics and maintained direct control over Delhi.
• Holkar of Indore: Governed Malwa and central India, maintaining a formidable military force.
• Gaekwad of Baroda: Administered Gujarat and collected revenue across western India.
• Bhonsle of Nagpur: Ruled Berar, Nagpur, and parts of Odisha, frequently pursuing independent diplomatic campaigns into Bengal.

Institutional and Administrative Mechanisms

Major Battles and Geopolitical Expansion

Battle of Palkhed (1728)

Baji Rao I defeated Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad using rapid cavalry maneuvers. The resulting Treaty of Mungi-Shevgaon forced the Nizam to recognize Shahu’s right to collect Chauth and Sardeshmukhi in the Deccan.

Battle of Bhopal (1737)

Maratha forces under Baji Rao I encircled the combined armies of the Mughals and the Nizam. The Treaty of Duraha Arani secured full Maratha control over Malwa and the territory between the Narmada and Chambal rivers.

Battle of Vasai (1739)

Chimaji Appa, brother of Baji Rao I, defeated the Portuguese forces at Vasai, capturing Salsette and Baçaim and ending Portuguese dominance on the northern Konkan coast.

Invasions of Bengal (1741–1751)

Raghoji Bhonsle of Nagpur launched repeated military expeditions into Bengal. In 1751, Nawab Alivardi Khan ceded Odisha and agreed to pay Rs 12 lakh annually as Chauth to Raghoji Bhonsle.

Third Battle of Panipat (1761)

The Maratha army commanded by Sadashivrao Bhau faced Ahmed Shah Abdali’s Afghan coalition. The defeat wiped out a generation of Maratha leaders, halted immediate northern expansion, and allowed confederate chiefs to act independently of Pune.

Political Resurgence and Anglo-Maratha Wars

Peshwa Madhav Rao I (1761–1772) restored Maratha authority in northern India, defeated the Nizam and Hyder Ali, and escorted Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II back to Delhi in 1771. Following Madhav Rao’s death, internal rivalries escalated.

Barbhai Council and First Anglo-Maratha War

Raghunath Rao assassinated Peshwa Narayan Rao in 1773 and sought British support via the Treaty of Surat (1775). A regency council of twelve leaders, known as the Barbhai Council and led by Nana Phadnavis and Mahadji Scindia, opposed Raghunath Rao. The resulting First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782) ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782), guaranteeing twenty years of peace and mutual territorial restoration.

Treaty of Bassein (1802) and Second Anglo-Maratha War

In October 1802, Yashwantrao Holkar defeated Peshwa Baji Rao II and Daulat Rao Scindia at the Battle of Poona. Baji Rao II fled to British protection and signed the Treaty of Bassein (1802), accepting a Subsidiary Alliance. This submission sparked the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805). The British defeated Scindia, Bhonsle, and Holkar, forcing treaties of Deogaon, Surji-Anjangaon, and Rajghat.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818)

Peshwa Baji Rao II made a final attempt to break free from British control, attacking the British Residency at Khadki. The British defeated the Peshwa at Khadki, Bhonsle at Sitabuldi, and Holkar at Mahidpur. The office of the Peshwa was abolished, Baji Rao II was exiled to Bithur, and a small principality of Satara was created for Pratap Singh, a direct descendant of Shivaji.

Key Historical Facts

Balaji Vishwanath signed the 1719 treaty with the Sayyid Brothers, securing Mughal imperial approval for Shahu’s sovereignty in Swarajya and rights to Chauth and Sardeshmukhi across six Mughal Deccan subahs. Mahadji Scindia hired French general Benoît de Boigne to build European-style infantry brigades and modern artillery units in North India. Ahilyabai Holkar ruled Indore from 1767 to 1795. She established political stability, built administrative systems, and restored major Hindu temples across India, including the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi. The Treaty of Purandar (1776) was signed by Nana Phadnavis and the Calcutta Council, temporarily annulling the Bombay Council’s Treaty of Surat with Raghunath Rao. In the Battle of Wadgaon (1779), Maratha forces trapped the British army, forcing them to sign the Convention of Wadgaon to surrender captured territories before the conflict was finalized by the Treaty of Salbai in 1782.