Khmer architecture

Khmer architecture, often referred to as Angkorian architecture, denotes the architectural traditions developed under the Khmer Empire from roughly the late eighth century to the mid-fifteenth century CE. Its finest achievement is Angkor Wat, constructed under King Suryavarman II and widely regarded as the masterpiece of the Angkorian style. Although deeply influenced by Indian religious and artistic traditions, Khmer architecture evolved into a distinctive Southeast Asian form marked by unique structural designs, sculptural styles and symbolic features. Most surviving Khmer buildings are temples or religious monuments, as secular structures were traditionally made of perishable materials and have not endured.

Origins and Influences

The early phases of Khmer architectural development were shaped by the Indianisation of Southeast Asia, particularly the diffusion of Indian rock-cut and sculptural traditions. Cambodian, Vietnamese and Javanese temples drew upon these influences, integrating Hindu cosmology, iconography and architectural concepts into local practice. Over time, Khmer builders adopted and reinterpreted these ideas, creating a uniquely Angkorian idiom. This is evident in the artistic depiction of divine and royal figures with characteristic Khmer facial features, including fuller faces and broader brows.
Before the rise of the Khmer Empire, the region was known as Chenla. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Khmer constructed stone sanctuaries well before the Angkor period, including protohistoric megalithic structures used for worship as early as the second century BCE. These early buildings laid the groundwork for later architectural innovations.

Pre-Angkorian Styles

Three major pre-Angkorian styles are commonly identified:

• Sambor Prei Kuk Style (c. 610–650): Centred on Isanapura, the capital of Chenla. Temples featured rounded colonettes with bulb-shaped capitals.
• Style of 635–700: Known for refined sculpture and larger colonettes, though examples are rare.
• Style of 700–800: Increasing decoration and more rings on colonettes, with brick construction still dominant.

These styles reveal a growing sophistication in structural forms and ornamentation.

Angkorian Periodisation

Scholars classify Angkorian architecture by stylistic periods, usually named for exemplary temples. The following sequence reflects a widely used framework:

• Preah Ko Style (c. 825–875): Continued earlier traditions while incorporating elements borrowed from Cham religious architecture. Towers were high and square, built of brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds.
• Preah Ko–Hariharalaya Period (877–886): Associated with the first capital at Hariharalaya (Roluos). Temples such as Preah Ko, Bakong and Lolei feature elegant lintels and brick towers of notable delicacy.
• Bakheng Style (889–923): Marked by the first major temple mountain in Angkor proper. Phnom Bakheng, built by King Yasovarman I, became a model for later temple mountains.
• Koh Ker Style (921–944): During King Jayavarman IV’s reign, the capital moved north to Koh Ker. Buildings tend to diminish in scale toward the centre; brick remained common, but sandstone gained prominence.
• Pre Rup Style (944–968): Associated with Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Characterised by temple-mountain layouts and refined yet bold carvings.
• Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Unique for its small scale and exceptionally intricate stone carvings, including celebrated bas-reliefs portraying scenes from Indian mythology.
• Khleang Style (c. 968–1010): Introduced cruciform gopuras, octagonal colonettes and restrained decoration. Temples such as Ta Keo reflect these innovations.
• Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Noted for large-scale temple mountains and dynamic relief carvings, exemplified by the Baphuon.
• Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): The classical pinnacle of Khmer architecture. Angkor Wat exhibits symmetry, refined proportions and extensive narrative bas-reliefs. Banteay Samre, Thommanon and Phimai share similar stylistic traits.
• Bayon Style (1181–1243): Following the expulsion of Cham forces, King Jayavarman VII launched a vast building programme. The Bayon, Ta Prohm, Preah Khan and Angkor Thom are characterised by impressive scale, richly adorned surfaces and rapid construction.
• Post-Bayon Style (1243–1431): Marked by gradual decline. The Terrace of the Leper King displays energetic reliefs depicting nāgas, dancers and demon kings.

Architectural Materials

Khmer builders employed brick, sandstone, laterite and wood, although only the stone and laterite components survive.

• Brick: Used primarily for early temples such as Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong. Decoration was usually applied to stucco over the brick. Brick structures were structurally modest but durable enough that many remain standing. Similar brick traditions flourished in neighbouring Champa, as seen at Mỹ Sơn.
• Sandstone: Quarried mainly from Phnom Kulen. Initially employed for architectural elements like door frames, it gradually replaced brick for entire structures. Ta Keo is the first major temple constructed almost entirely in sandstone.
• Laterite: A sun-hardened clay used for foundations, walls and concealed structural components. Its rough surface made it unsuitable for fine carving.
• Wood: Extensively used for dwellings and palaces, but none has survived.

Distinctive Architectural Elements

Khmer temples exhibit several hallmark features:

• Temple Mountains symbolising Mount Meru, the cosmic centre of Hindu cosmology.
• Gopuras (gate towers) marking cardinal entrances.
• Libraries positioned symmetrically within temple compounds.
• Moats and Enclosures representing the oceans and sacred boundaries.
• Colonettes and Lintels finely carved with floral and mythological motifs.
• Bas-reliefs depicting deities, celestial dancers (apsaras), epic narratives and scenes of courtly life.

These components reflect the religious symbolism central to Angkorian architecture, blending Hindu cosmology with local Khmer artistic expression.