Evolution of Police System in British India

Prior to British expansion, local administration in Mughal India relied on a decentralized security apparatus. The Faujdar headed the administrative units called sarkars, maintaining executive power and commanding troop contingents. The Kotwal managed law and order in urban centers, supervising markets, intelligence gathering, and neighborhood watch systems. At the village level, traditional village watchmen (Chaukidars) provided local security, operating under the authority of village headmen and local landlords (Zamindars).

Early Company Rule and Systemic Collapse

The East India Company disrupted this local framework following the acquisition of the Diwani rights in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in 1765. The company stripped Zamindars of their traditional judicial and policing responsibilities while failing to replace them with an organized police structure. Crime rates and organized dacoity rose during this period, exposing the vulnerability of local trade networks.

Early Police Reforms Under Cornwallis

Abolition of Zamindari Police Powers

Governor-General Lord Cornwallis reformed local administration through his Judicial Plan of 1791 and the Cornwallis Code of 1793. Cornwallis formally relieved Zamindars of all police responsibilities, disbanded their private armed retainers, and established a state-controlled police organization.

Introduction of the Daroga System

Cornwallis organized districts into administrative units called thanas, each spanning approximately 20 square miles.

• A Daroga, an Indian official appointed directly by the District Magistrate, headed each thana.
• Local village watchmen (Chaukidars) came under the direct control of the Daroga.
• The District Magistrate supervised the Darogas within his administrative jurisdiction.

Limitations of the Daroga System

The Daroga system suffered from structural flaws, including corruption, extortion, and limited operational reach. Darogas held vast discretionary power with minimal administrative oversight, making them unpopular among the rural population. The system proved ineffective in suppressing organized crime, prompting British officials to explore alternative models.

Regional Experiments and Pre-1861 Reforms

The Madras and Bombay Models

In 1802, the Madras Presidency replaced the Daroga system by transferring police supervision back to hereditary village officials and revenue collectors, following recommendations by Sir Thomas Munro. The Bombay Presidency adopted a similar decentralized model under the Elphinstone Code of 1827, placing law enforcement under the revenue administration.

The Sindh Model of Sir Charles Napier (1843)

Following the annexation of Sindh in 1843, Sir Charles Napier established a dedicated police force modeled on the Royal Irish Constabulary.

• The police functioned as a separate, militarized body distinct from the military.
• The system established a clear hierarchy, headed by a Superintendent of Police at the district level.
• The Superintendent reported directly to the civilian Collector while maintaining operational control over his subordinates.

Napier’s model demonstrated that a centralized, disciplined police hierarchy could maintain law and order effectively without relying on military deployment.

Police Commission of 1860 and the Indian Police Act of 1861

Recommendations of the 1860 Commission

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 highlighted the need for a unified police apparatus across British India. The British government appointed a Police Commission in 1860 to design a modern framework for law enforcement. The commission recommended creating a civil police force, abolishing military police units in peaceful provinces, and establishing a single line of departmental command.

Key Provisions of the Indian Police Act 1861

The Indian Police Act of 1861 codified the commission’s recommendations, providing the statutory foundation for modern policing in India.

• Departmental Structure: It established a single civil police force in every province under the administrative control of an Inspector-General of Police (IGP).
• District Command: A District Superintendent of Police (DSP) took charge of police administration in each district, working under the general control of the District Magistrate.
• Hierarchy: The Act formalized lower operational ranks, including Inspectors, Sub-Inspectors, Head Constables, and Constables.
• Dual Control System: The Act introduced dual control at the district level, splitting operational authority between the Magistrate and the Police Superintendent.

Fraser Commission of 1902 and Later Reorganizations

Findings of the Andrew Fraser Commission

In 1902, Viceroy Lord Curzon appointed a Police Commission chaired by Sir Andrew Fraser to review police performance. The commission criticized the police force for widespread corruption, inefficiency, and oppressive practices toward the public.

Recommendations and Institutional Reforms

The Fraser Commission recommended systemic structural upgrades to modernize the force:

• Creation of the rank of Deputy Superintendent of Police (DySP) to open higher administrative roles to educated Indian candidates.
• Establishment of direct recruitment channels and dedicated training institutions for officers and constables.
• Creation of the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) at the provincial level for specialized crime analysis and detective work.
• Creation of the Central Intelligence Bureau (IB) at the federal level to monitor political intelligence and revolutionary movements.

Key Legislative and Institutional Reforms

Historical Facts and Key Details

The Criminal Investigation Department (CID) came into existence in 1905 following the recommendations of the 1902 Fraser Commission. Sir Harold Stuart served as the first Director of the Central Criminal Intelligence department. The Indian Police (IP) cadre, predecessor to the modern Indian Police Service (IPS), began recruiting through competitive examinations held in London from 1893 onward. Direct recruitment of Indians to superior posts in the police service remained extremely limited until the implementation of the Lee Commission recommendations in 1924. The concept of a separate police intelligence wing gained momentum after the 1887 Russian war scare, leading to the establishment of the Special Branch in 1888. This body eventually evolved into the Central Intelligence Bureau (IB), making it one of the oldest intelligence organizations in the world. During the Swadeshi Movement (1905–1911) and subsequent national protests, the British administration deployed the Special Armed Constabulary units to suppress civil disobedience, marking the militarization of civil police reserves in urban centers.