Eduard Bernstein

Eduard Bernstein (1850–1932) was a German socialist theorist, politician, and leading figure in the development of revisionist Marxism. He is best known for challenging orthodox Marxist doctrine and for formulating a reformist interpretation of socialism that emphasised democracy, gradual social change, and ethical considerations. Bernstein’s ideas profoundly shaped modern social democracy and marked a decisive shift away from revolutionary socialism towards parliamentary and evolutionary reform.
As a long-standing member of the German Social Democratic movement, Bernstein played a crucial role in redefining socialist theory in response to changing economic and political conditions at the turn of the twentieth century.

Early life and education

Eduard Bernstein was born on 6 January 1850 in Berlin, in the Kingdom of Prussia, into a Jewish working-class family. His early life was shaped by economic insecurity, which contributed to his later commitment to social justice and workers’ rights.
Bernstein received a modest formal education and initially trained as a bank clerk. Alongside his professional work, he became increasingly involved in socialist politics, reading widely in philosophy, economics, and political theory. His intellectual development was strongly influenced by the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, as well as by the practical experiences of the German labour movement.

Entry into socialism and exile

Bernstein joined the Social Democratic Workers’ Party of Germany in the 1870s and quickly became active as a journalist and party organiser. His political activities brought him into conflict with the German authorities, particularly after the introduction of the Anti-Socialist Laws in 1878, which banned socialist organisations and publications.
As a result, Bernstein lived in exile for many years, primarily in Switzerland and later in the United Kingdom. During this period, he worked closely with Engels and edited socialist newspapers. Exile proved intellectually formative, exposing Bernstein to British parliamentary traditions, trade unionism, and liberal political culture, all of which later informed his theoretical revision of Marxism.

Relationship with Marxism and Engels

In his early career, Bernstein was regarded as a loyal adherent of Marxist orthodoxy. He maintained close personal and intellectual ties with Engels, who initially viewed him as a trusted representative of Marxist theory.
However, after Engels’ death in 1895, Bernstein increasingly questioned core Marxist predictions. He observed that capitalism had not collapsed as Marx had anticipated, nor had the working class become uniformly impoverished. Instead, he noted rising living standards, the expansion of the middle classes, and the stabilising role of democratic institutions.
These observations led Bernstein to reconsider the theoretical foundations of socialism, setting the stage for his revisionist critique.

Evolutionary Socialism and revisionism

Bernstein articulated his mature views most clearly in Evolutionary Socialism (1899), also published under the title The Preconditions of Socialism and the Tasks of Social Democracy. In this work, he argued that socialism should abandon the expectation of an inevitable capitalist collapse and revolutionary seizure of power.
Bernstein maintained that socialism could be achieved through:

• Parliamentary democracy and universal suffrage
• Gradual social and economic reforms
• Trade union activity and collective bargaining
• Legal and institutional change rather than revolution

He famously declared that “the movement is everything, the final goal nothing”, emphasising ethical progress and democratic practice over abstract revolutionary ends. For Bernstein, socialism was not a fixed historical destiny but a moral project rooted in freedom, equality, and social justice.

Critique of orthodox Marxism

Bernstein’s revisionism directly challenged several pillars of orthodox Marxism. He rejected the labour theory of value as an exclusive explanation of economic relations and disputed the theory of increasing proletarian misery. He also criticised historical materialism for downplaying the role of ethics, law, and political institutions.
According to Bernstein, democracy was not merely a tactical tool for socialism but an essential value in itself. He argued that authoritarian methods were incompatible with socialist ideals and warned that revolutionary violence risked producing new forms of oppression.
These positions provoked intense controversy within the socialist movement, dividing it into reformist and revolutionary factions.

Debate within the Social Democratic movement

Bernstein’s ideas sparked the so-called “revisionism debate” within the German Social Democratic Party. Leading orthodox Marxists, including Karl Kautsky and Rosa Luxemburg, condemned his views as a betrayal of socialism.
Luxemburg, in particular, argued that reform without revolution would entrench capitalism rather than overcome it. Bernstein, however, remained steadfast, insisting that socialism must adapt to empirical reality rather than rigid doctrine.
Despite official party condemnation of revisionism, many of Bernstein’s ideas were gradually incorporated into the practical policies of social democratic parties, especially as they gained parliamentary representation.

Parliamentary career and political practice

After returning to Germany, Bernstein served as a member of the Reichstag for several periods. In parliament, he advocated social reforms such as labour protection, welfare legislation, and the expansion of democratic rights.
His political conduct reflected his theoretical commitments. Rather than pursuing radical confrontation, Bernstein worked within existing institutions to improve workers’ conditions incrementally. This approach reinforced his reputation as a pragmatic reformer rather than a revolutionary ideologue.
During the First World War, Bernstein opposed German militarism and later supported the establishment of the Weimar Republic, viewing democratic republicanism as a necessary framework for socialist progress.

Ethical socialism and later thought

In his later writings, Bernstein increasingly emphasised ethical socialism, arguing that moral values such as justice, solidarity, and human dignity were central to socialist aims. He rejected economic determinism and stressed human agency in shaping social development.
Bernstein also addressed issues of nationalism, colonialism, and antisemitism, often adopting more liberal and humanitarian positions than many of his contemporaries. His commitment to democracy remained consistent, even during periods of political instability.