Decline of Early Revolutionary Activities

The first phase of the revolutionary movement in India, spanning from the late 19th century through the end of World War I, saw armed resistance led by secret societies across Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, and overseas centers. By 1918, this early phase experienced a sharp decline due to heavy colonial repression, organizational weaknesses, and shifting national political dynamics.

Major Causes of Decline

The decline of early revolutionary militancy was brought about by state suppression, internal limitations, and evolving political strategies within the broader freedom movement.

Heavy State Repression and Emergency Legislation

The British administration introduced harsh legislative measures to suppress underground networks.

• Defence of India Act 1915: Enacted during World War I, this emergency law granted sweeping powers to executive authorities for preventive detention, trial by special tribunals without appeal, and wartime censorship.
• Special Trials and Executions: Public trials such as the Alipore, Nasik, and Lahore Conspiracy Cases led to the execution of prominent leaders (including Khudiram Bose, Kartar Singh Sarabha, and Vishnu Ganesh Pingle) and the transportation of hundreds to the Andaman Cellular Jail.
• Network Infiltration: Colonial intelligence agencies, particularly the Special Branch and CID, placed revolutionary centers under constant surveillance and used double agents to disrupt operations.

Organizational and Strategic Limitations

Early revolutionary groups faced systemic operational constraints that limited long-term impact.

• Lack of Mass Support: Early revolutionaries relied on individual assassinations, secret societies, and military coups rather than mass mobilization, leaving them isolated from the broader population.
• Infiltration and Information Leaks: Key operational plans, including the 1915 Ghadar Mutiny and the Christmas Day Plot, failed because police informers leaked details to colonial authorities.
• Resource Shortages: Secret societies faced constant shortages of arms, ammunition, and funds. Attempts to secure foreign weapons through schemes like the Zimmermann Plan largely failed due to British naval blockades.

Loss of Central Leadership

By 1918, key leaders of the first phase were dead, imprisoned, or in exile.

• Casualties: Bagha Jatin died in the Battle of Burhibalang (1915), while Prafulla Chaki, Anant Laxman Kanhere, and Kanailal Dutta lost their lives in early operations.
• Incarceration and Exile: Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and Barindra Kumar Ghosh were transported to the Cellular Jail. Rash Behari Bose fled to Japan, Lala Hardayal moved to Europe, and Aurobindo Ghosh retired to Pondicherry to pursue spiritual endeavors.

Emergence of Mass Politics under Gandhi

The end of World War I brought a shift in the nature of the Indian national movement.

• Arrival of Mahatma Gandhi: The entry of Gandhi transformed the freedom struggle into a mass movement centered on Satyagraha and non-violence (Ahimsa).
• Mass Appeal: The Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919) and the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922) offered young activists an avenue for direct political action that drew millions of participants.
• Redirection of Revolutionary Youth: Many surviving revolutionaries suspended armed activities to join Gandhi’s non-violent campaigns, temporarily halting militant operations.

Summary of Early Cases, Impacted Groups, and Outcomes

Transition to the Second Phase

The decline of the first phase was temporary. The abrupt withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident left many young activists disillusioned with non-violent methods. This led to the revival of revolutionary activity in the mid-1920s under new organizations like the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) in Northern India and the Chittagong Armoury Raid group under Surya Sen in Bengal, introducing socialist ideologies to the movement.

Essential Facts

The Rowlatt Committee, chaired by Sir Sidney Rowlatt in 1917, was formed specifically to evaluate foreign-backed revolutionary conspiracies and recommend permanent anti-sedition laws. The Rowlatt Committee’s findings resulted in the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919 (Rowlatt Act), which allowed detention without trial for up to two years. Sardar Ajit Singh, founder of the Bharat Mata Society in 1907, lived in exile across Europe and South America for 38 years to escape British prosecution, returning to India only in 1947. Aurobindo Ghosh withdrew entirely from revolutionary politics following his acquittal in the Alipore Bomb Case in 1909, establishing his ashram in Pondicherry in 1910. The Defence of India Act 1915 served as the direct precursor to the Rowlatt Act of 1919.