Dalai Lama

The Dalai Lama is the spiritual head of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism and one of the most significant figures in the religious and political history of Tibet. The title forms part of a longer ceremonial designation, traditionally rendered as Holiness Knowing Everything Vajradhara Dalai Lama, a name that reflects high attainment in both exoteric and esoteric Buddhist teachings. Although now widely recognised as a global Buddhist leader, the Dalai Lama’s authority originally arose within the Tibetan monastic system and subsequently came to extend across wider spheres of society, politics and international relations.

Origins and meaning of the title

The composite title bestowed upon the Dalai Lama contains several layers of linguistic and doctrinal significance. Holiness denotes transcendence beyond ordinary existence, whilst Knowing Everything refers to mastery of the highest levels of Buddhist exoteric scholarship. Vajradhara derives from Sanskrit and is associated with advanced realisation in esoteric teachings. The Mongolic term Dalai, meaning “ocean”, corresponds to the Tibetan gyatso, implying breadth and profundity of wisdom. Together these elements form a title expressing vast spiritual attainment.
The designation Dalai Lama arose in 1578 when the Mongol leader Altan Khan encountered the prominent Gelug lama Sonam Gyatso. Impressed by his teachings, Altan Khan granted him the title, which was retroactively extended to the previous two incarnations of the lineage. Thus, Sonam Gyatso became recognised as the 3rd Dalai Lama, with Gendun Drub and Gendun Gyatso posthumously recognised as the 1st and 2nd Dalai Lamas. All Dalai Lamas are regarded as manifestations of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, who appears in Tibetan Buddhism as the patron deity of Tibet.
Throughout the Ming and Qing periods, successive Chinese emperors conferred additional honorific titles on Dalai Lamas, often recorded in multilingual golden seals and imperial documents. These titles reflected both religious esteem and the political relationships between Tibetan hierarchs and Chinese courts.

Religious authority and role within Tibetan Buddhism

The Dalai Lama is traditionally associated with the Gelug school, the newest of the major Tibetan Buddhist traditions, founded by Je Tsongkhapa. While the Gelug school became dominant in Central Tibet, the prestige of the Dalai Lama extended beyond sectarian boundaries. From the time of the 5th Dalai Lama in the seventeenth century, the institution came to represent a pan-Tibetan focus of religious unity and moral authority.
As an ecumenical figure, the Dalai Lama’s role includes:

• guiding monastic and lay communities;
• promoting ethical values and doctrinal harmony;
• and acting as a spiritual symbol for Tibetans both inside Tibet and within the global diaspora.

The 14th Dalai Lama has continued this tradition, working to bridge sectarian divisions among Tibetan Buddhist schools and becoming an international representative of Tibetan culture and identity.

Political functions and governance

The Dalai Lamas gradually assumed political authority beginning with the 5th Dalai Lama, who established the Ganden Phodrang government in 1642. This administration governed Tibet until 1951. Under this system, the Dalai Lama or appointed regents guided both religious and secular affairs from Lhasa.
During the Qing period, Tibet was formally designated as a protectorate under Qing authority, though it retained considerable autonomy in internal matters. Imperial oversight included the right to ratify high-level Tibetan appointments and, from the late eighteenth century onwards, involvement in the selection of significant reincarnations, including the Dalai and Panchen Lamas. The 29-Article Ordinance of 1793 codified procedures for governance and religious administration, including the use of the Golden Urn system to regulate the recognition of major tulkus.
After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, the 13th Dalai Lama asserted Tibet’s independence, although this was not internationally recognised. During the early years of the People’s Republic of China, negotiations resulted in the Seventeen Point Agreement of 1951, which the 14th Dalai Lama later repudiated following the 1959 uprising. He subsequently left Lhasa and established a government-in-exile in Dharamshala, India. While initially supportive of independence, he moved towards a “Middle Way” approach advocating autonomy within China rather than full secession.

The priest–patron (mchod yon) relationship

A key historical framework for understanding relations between Tibetan Buddhist hierarchs and powerful foreign rulers is the concept of mchod yon, or priest–patron alliance. Under this arrangement the religious leader provided spiritual authority and ritual support, while the secular patron offered military protection and political backing. Examples include relationships between Tibetan lamas and Mongol khans in the thirteenth to seventeenth centuries, as well as interactions with Manchu emperors of the Qing dynasty.
Supporters view this as an arrangement that preserved Tibet’s cultural and religious autonomy while ensuring protection from external threats. Critics argue that the model obscures the reality of political subordination, pointing out that Mongol and Qing rulers retained ultimate authority over foreign policy and exercised significant influence in internal affairs. Many historians characterise Tibet in certain periods as a tributary or vassal state embedded within broader imperial structures.

Reincarnation and succession

Central to Tibetan Buddhist doctrine is the belief that high lamas can consciously choose their next rebirth for the benefit of all sentient beings. The Dalai Lama, as a manifestation of Avalokiteshvara, is expected to reincarnate following his death. Traditionally, teams of monks locate the next incarnation through divination, omens and recognition tests.
Chinese authorities have long asserted involvement in the selection of major tulkus, a practice formalised during the Qing era. The 14th Dalai Lama has repeatedly stated that the succession should remain a religious matter free of political interference. He has suggested several possibilities, including the potential end of the Dalai Lama lineage, the identification of a successor during his lifetime or a reincarnation recognised outside Chinese jurisdiction.

Names, titles and cultural significance

In Tibetan, the Dalai Lama is also known as Rgyalba Rinpoche, meaning “Precious Victor”, or simply as Rgyalba. His titles have historically reflected both spiritual eminence and political ties, as evidenced by Ming and Qing imperial records that bestowed elaborate honorifics emphasising Buddhist virtues, cosmic authority and benevolent leadership.
Beyond formal titles, the Dalai Lama serves as a symbol of Tibetan identity, resilience and cultural continuity. The 14th Dalai Lama in particular has become an international advocate for non-violence, compassion and interreligious dialogue, as well as a representative of the Tibetan diaspora’s aspirations.