Civil Disobedience Movement under Gandhi

The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934) marked a pivotal transition in the Indian freedom struggle from peaceful petitions and localized resistance to non-violent, direct non-cooperation aimed at dismantling colonial authority. Initiated by Mahatma Gandhi, the movement mobilized rural and urban populations through mass defiance of salt laws, revenue boycotts, and widespread civil non-compliance.

Preceding Events and Historical Context

The movement emerged from intense political friction and economic distress during the late 1920s.

• Rejection of Nehru Report: The British administration failed to act on the one-year ultimatum issued by the Indian National Congress at its Calcutta Session in 1928, which demanded Dominion Status based on the Nehru Report.
• Purna Swaraj Declaration: At the Lahore Congress Session in December 1929, chaired by Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress adopted complete independence (Purna Swaraj) as its official goal and authorized Mahatma Gandhi to launch a civil disobedience campaign.
• Gandhi’s Eleven Demands: On January 31, 1930, Gandhi submitted an eleven-point ultimatum to Viceroy Lord Irwin. The key demands included:
  • 50% reduction in land revenue.
  • Abolition of the salt tax and government monopoly over salt.
  • 50% reduction in military expenditure and civil administration costs.
  • Imposition of protective tariffs on foreign cloth.
  • Discharge of political prisoners not convicted of violent crimes.
• The Viceroy ignored the ultimatum, setting the stage for direct action.

The Dandi March and Commencement (1930)

Gandhi chose the salt tax as the central catalyst for mass action because salt was a basic necessity across all socioeconomic classes.

Key Milestones of the Salt March

Regional Variations and Spread

The violation of salt laws at Dandi triggered regional satyagrahas across coastal and inland regions of India:

• Tamil Nadu: C. Rajagopalachari led a march from Tiruchirappalli to Vedaranyam along the Coromandel Coast.
• Malabar (Kerala): K. Kelappan, known as “Kerala Gandhi,” organized a march from Calicut to Payyanur.
• Assam: Volunteers marched from Sylhet to Noakhali (Bengal) to manufacture salt along the seashore.
• North-West Frontier Province (NWFP): Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) led the Khudai Khidmatgars (“Servants of God”), also known as the Red Shirts. They maintained non-violent resistance during urban blockades in Peshawar.
• Dharasana Salt Works (Gujarat): Sarojini Naidu, Imam Sahib, and Gandhi’s son Manilal led non-violent satyagrahis against police forces at Dharasana on May 21, 1930. Journalist Webb Miller documented the brutal police action for global audiences.

Methods of Resistance and Social Participation

Beyond salt production, the movement incorporated diverse forms of direct civil resistance:

• No-Chaukidari Tax Campaigns: Peasants in Eastern India, particularly in Bihar and Bengal, refused to pay local chaukidari taxes used to fund local village police.
• No-Revenue and No-Rent Strikes: Peasants in Gujarat (Kheda and Bardoli) refused land revenue, while tenants in the United Provinces launched no-rent campaigns against landlords and the state.
• Forest Law Violations: Tribal communities in the Central Provinces, Maharashtra, and Karnataka defied colonial forest restrictions by grazing cattle and collecting timber in reserved forests.
• Boycotts: Women picketed shops selling foreign cloth and liquor. Mass resignations occurred among Indian administrative staff in rural offices.

Phases and Negotiation Deadlocks

The movement proceeded through two distinct operational phases interrupted by political negotiations.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact and First Phase Pause (1931)

Government repression led to mass arrests, including the detention of Gandhi on May 5, 1930. To facilitate discussions, Gandhi was released in January 1931, leading to negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin.

• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): The Congress agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement and participate in the Second Round Table Conference.
• British Concessions: The government released non-violent political prisoners, permitted peaceful picketing, and allowed coastal residents to manufacture salt for personal use.
• Second Round Table Conference: Gandhi attended as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress in London (September–December 1931). The conference failed due to deadlocks over communal representation and minority electorates.

Second Phase and Final Withdrawal (1932–1934)

Upon returning to India in December 1931, Gandhi found renewed administrative repression under Viceroy Lord Willingdon.

• Gandhi relaunched the movement in January 1932. The government outlawed the Congress, seized party properties, and jailed top leaders.
• Communal Award and Poona Pact: On August 16, 1932, British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced the Communal Award, granting separate electorates to depressed classes. Gandhi undertook a fast unto death in Yerwada Jail, leading to the Poona Pact (September 24, 1932) signed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Hindu leaders. It replaced separate electorates for depressed classes with reserved seats within joint electorates.
• Withdrawal: Facing organizational exhaustion and government clampdowns, Gandhi suspended individual civil disobedience in July 1933 and formally withdrew the entire movement in April 1934.

Facts and Historical Details

The British authorities arrested over 90,000 political workers during the course of the movement, marking the largest mass incarceration in colonial history up to that time. The movement introduced Vanar Senas (children’s brigades) and Manjari Senas (girls’ brigades), which assisted adult activists by distributing literature, carrying messages, and organizing local pickets. Nagaland’s Rani Gaidinliu, an 13-year-old Heraka religious leader, led an armed tribal revolt against British authority in the northeastern hills, linking regional resistance to the broader Civil Disobedience Movement before her arrest in 1932. Women participated in public political demonstrations in unprecedented numbers during this campaign, leading pickets against foreign goods and managing local Congress committees during mass arrests of male leadership. The persistent political pressure generated by the Civil Disobedience Movement, combined with the subsequent Round Table Conferences, provided the primary momentum for drafting the Government of India Act 1935, which introduced provincial autonomy.