Bhutan War

The Bhutan War, also known as the Duar War or the Anglo-Bhutanese War, was a significant conflict fought between the British Empire and the Kingdom of Bhutan from 1864 to 1865. The war arose primarily from border disputes and Bhutan’s repeated incursions into the neighbouring Indian territories of Assam and Bengal. The conflict culminated in the Treaty of Sinchula, which marked the loss of Bhutanese territory to British India and redefined Bhutan’s political relations with its southern neighbour.

Background and Causes

The origins of the Bhutan War can be traced to the early nineteenth century, when the British East India Company began consolidating control over the northeastern frontier of India. Bhutan, a mountainous kingdom with loosely organised administrative divisions, had historically exercised influence over the Duars, a fertile strip of land at the Himalayan foothills. These plains were economically significant for their agricultural productivity and trade routes linking India with Tibet.
However, following the British annexation of Assam and Bengal, disputes arose concerning the sovereignty of the Duars. Bhutanese local governors, known as Penlops and Dzongpons, frequently raided the plains to collect taxes and assert control. The British viewed these incursions as acts of aggression. Diplomatic efforts, including missions in 1838 and 1852, failed to produce a lasting agreement, as Bhutan’s internal divisions made negotiation inconsistent and inconclusive.
Tensions escalated in the early 1860s when Bhutanese forces seized British subjects and property in the frontier regions. The British authorities, seeking to secure trade and territorial stability, decided to launch a military expedition into Bhutan in 1864.

Course of the War

The Bhutan War began in November 1864 when British troops, under the command of Brigadier-General Herbert, advanced into the Bhutanese-controlled Duars. The campaign was divided into four columns targeting key passes and forts along the Bhutanese frontier, including Dewangiri, Buxa, and Dalingkot.
Initially, the British forces encountered stiff resistance from Bhutanese defenders, who utilised their knowledge of the terrain and guerrilla tactics to their advantage. Armed with traditional weapons and limited firearms, the Bhutanese fought tenaciously in mountainous terrain that posed significant logistical challenges to the British.
Despite early setbacks, the superior firepower and organisation of the British army soon overwhelmed the Bhutanese fortifications. By early 1865, the major strongholds of Dewangiri and Dalingkot had fallen. Bhutanese forces were forced to retreat further into the mountains, and by April, active hostilities ceased.

Treaty of Sinchula and Territorial Changes

The war formally concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Sinchula on 11 November 1865. The treaty marked a decisive British victory and imposed significant territorial concessions upon Bhutan. Under its terms, Bhutan ceded the Bengal and Assam Duars—an area comprising approximately 2,750 square miles—to British India in exchange for an annual subsidy of 50,000 rupees.
The treaty also established a framework for future diplomatic relations between the two states. It stipulated that Bhutan would refrain from interfering in British territories and that a British representative could be stationed on the frontier. The new boundary between Bhutan and British India largely corresponded to the modern border between Bhutan and the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.

Political and Economic Impact on Bhutan

The Bhutan War had profound consequences for Bhutan’s political and economic structure. The loss of the Duars deprived the kingdom of a vital source of revenue, as the plains had provided fertile agricultural land and access to trade routes. The reduction in external income weakened Bhutan’s regional influence and contributed to internal instability during the late nineteenth century.
However, the fixed annual subsidy provided under the treaty eventually became an important source of state revenue, allowing Bhutan to stabilise its finances. The treaty also led to the gradual emergence of more structured foreign relations with British India, marking the beginning of Bhutan’s modern diplomatic history.
Internally, the war exposed the fragmented nature of Bhutan’s political system. Power struggles among regional governors had hindered a unified response to the British invasion. The experience underscored the need for stronger central authority, a development that later materialised with the establishment of the Wangchuck dynasty in 1907, which unified Bhutan under a hereditary monarchy.

British and Regional Perspectives

For the British Empire, the Bhutan War was part of a broader strategy to secure the northeastern frontier of India. The annexation of the Duars provided fertile lands for cultivation and a strategic buffer between British India and Tibet. The British administration developed the newly acquired territories, integrating them into the economic framework of Bengal and Assam through tea plantations and improved infrastructure.
The war also reinforced the British policy of establishing political influence over Himalayan states without direct annexation. Bhutan, like neighbouring Sikkim, remained nominally independent but became increasingly reliant on British India for diplomatic and economic interaction. This policy of indirect control became a hallmark of British relations with Himalayan polities during the late nineteenth century.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Bhutan War occupies a pivotal place in Bhutanese history as a turning point in its relationship with the British Empire and the Indian subcontinent. Although it resulted in territorial losses, the conflict indirectly laid the foundation for Bhutan’s modern statehood by encouraging political consolidation and reform.
The Treaty of Sinchula remained in effect until it was replaced by the Treaty of Punakha in 1910, which reaffirmed Bhutan’s internal autonomy while formalising British guidance over its foreign affairs. This diplomatic evolution eventually influenced Bhutan’s post-colonial relationship with independent India.