Arabs

Arabs constitute an ethnolinguistic group primarily associated with the regions of West Asia and North Africa, collectively known as the Arab world. They share a substantial cultural, linguistic and historical heritage, shaped over millennia through diverse civilisations, religious traditions and social structures. While predominantly concentrated in the Middle East and North Africa, Arabs also form significant diaspora communities across the globe, contributing to a broad and evolving cultural identity.

Ethnic, Cultural and Linguistic Identity

Arab identity encompasses several interconnected dimensions, including language, genealogy, cultural customs and shared historical experience. The Arabic language, belonging to the Central Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family, serves as a foundational marker of identity. The wide adoption of Arabic across the Arab world, coupled with shared traditions in literature, music, cuisine and social customs, reinforces a cohesive cultural framework.
Identity definitions may emphasise linguistic or cultural aspects, genealogical descent, political affiliation or national belonging. Religion plays a notable role; although pre-Islamic Arabs practised diverse polytheistic and monotheistic traditions, the emergence and spread of Islam became a major unifying factor. Today the majority of Arabs are Muslims, with a smaller yet historically significant presence of Arab Christians, Druze communities and followers of the Bahá’í Faith.

Early History and Ancient Civilisations

Arabs have inhabited the Fertile Crescent and the wider Arabian Peninsula since ancient times. Assyrian records from the 9th century BCE provide some of the earliest references to Arab groups living in regions of the Levant, Mesopotamia and Arabia. Archaeological and historical evidence indicates that early Arab communities contributed to several important civilisations in the ancient Near East.
From around 3000 BCE onwards, groups such as the Dilmun, Magan and Gerrha civilisations played substantial roles in long-distance trade routes linking Mesopotamia with the wider Mediterranean region. Prominent tribal formations mentioned in historical and religious texts include the Midianites and Thamudic peoples. By the 1st millennium BCE, the Qedarites had established political influence from Lower Egypt to the southern Levant, maintaining connections with neighbouring Canaanite and Aramaean states.
Between 1200 BCE and 110 BCE, powerful kingdoms emerged across Arabia. These included the Sabaeans, Lihyanites, Minaeans, Qataban, Hadhramaut, Awsan and the Himyarite Kingdom, each contributing to the region’s development in agriculture, trade and cultural production. In Abrahamic religious tradition, Arabs trace their origins to Ishmael, son of Abraham.

Classical Antiquity and the Rise of Arab Kingdoms

During classical antiquity, the Nabataeans founded the Nabataean Kingdom centred on Petra in the 4th century BCE. They controlled vital caravan routes and facilitated commerce between Arabia, the Levant and the Mediterranean. The Palmyrene Empire, led by Queen Zenobia in the 3rd century CE, extended its influence across Syria, Egypt, Arabia Petraea and parts of Anatolia.
Other notable Arab groups included the Itureans, who inhabited Lebanon, Syria and northern Palestine, and several Arab-led polities in Upper Mesopotamia, such as Osroene and the Kingdom of Hatra. By the 2nd century CE, the Sasanian Empire referred to parts of northern Mesopotamia as “Arbayistan”, indicating recognition of substantial Arab populations.
A variety of Arab tribal confederations, including the Tanukhids, Salihids, Lakhmids, Kinda and Ghassanids, held significant power during late antiquity. Many adopted Christianity and maintained strong political ties with the Byzantine and Sasanian empires.

The Spread of Islam and the Medieval Period

The advent of Islam in the 7th century brought profound transformations. The rapid expansion of early Muslim rule, led initially by the Rashidun Caliphate and followed by the Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates, united vast territories from the Iberian Peninsula to Central Asia under Arab-led governance. This expansion facilitated major migrations into the Levant, Mesopotamia and North Africa, where Arab culture and language became deeply entrenched.
Arab civilisation flourished during the medieval era, contributing significantly to global progress in science, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, ethics, literature and architecture. Innovations in algebra, astronomy, navigation, optics and medicine influenced later European scholarship. Cultural expressions such as poetry, calligraphy, architecture and cuisine became defining elements of Arab identity across regions.

Modern History, Nationalism and the Arab World

By the early 20th century, Arab nationalism had become a central political force, culminating in the Arab Revolt during the First World War. The subsequent dissolution of the Ottoman Empire facilitated the emergence of modern Arab states and eventually led to the establishment of the Arab League on 22 March 1945. The League advocates political cooperation, cultural unity and the principle of pan-Arabism.
Arabs today span a region stretching from Morocco in the west to Iraq in the east. Shared heritage, including literature, music, folk traditions, architecture and cuisine, contributes to a distinct cultural sphere. Themes of identity, nationalism and language continue to shape sociopolitical discourse across the region. While Islam remains the predominant religion, communities of Arab Christians and adherents of other faiths maintain important historical and cultural roles.

Etymology and Linguistic Origins

The term “Arab” has ancient linguistic roots. The earliest documented reference appears in the Kurkh Monoliths from the 9th century BCE, describing Bedouin groups allied against Assyria. Related terms appear approximately forty times in South Arabian inscriptions. A notable early use of the self-designation occurs in a Nabataean-Arabic inscription dated 328 CE referring to Imru’ al-Qays ibn Amr as “king of all the Arabs”.
Classical sources such as Herodotus and later writers like Agatharchides, Diodorus Siculus and Strabo mention Arab populations throughout the Near East, including in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Sinai and the Red Sea littoral. Various explanations for the origin of the term “Arab” have been proposed. Traditional genealogical narratives attribute it to a founding ancestor named Yarub. Other theories suggest associations with westward geographical orientation, desert habitation or verbal roots meaning “to traverse” or “to mix”.
Arabic, the primary language associated with Arab identity, belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic family. Most scholars regard the Arabian Peninsula as the linguistic homeland of Semitic languages, although some propose connections with earlier Levantine origins. Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples inhabited the Near East from the 3rd millennium BCE, contributing to the linguistic and cultural foundations from which Arabic later emerged.

Religion, Society and Cultural Contributions

Before Islam, many Arabs followed polytheistic traditions, while some groups adopted Judaism or Christianity. Individuals known as ḥanīfs practised forms of monotheism. Today approximately ninety-three per cent of Arabs are Muslims, with Christian, Druze and Bahá’í communities representing the remainder.
Arab societies have produced substantial contributions to the arts, sciences and humanities. These include achievements in medicine, architecture, literature, philosophy, economics, theatre, music and visual arts. Arab cultural expressions such as poetry, storytelling, folk dance, calligraphy and cuisine continue to play an important role in shaping both regional and diaspora identities.