Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism, also called Mazdayasna or Behdīn, is one of the world’s oldest organised religions. Centred on the teachings of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster (Avestan: Zarathustra), it is founded upon the sacred texts of the Avesta and venerates Ahura Mazda as the supreme creator and embodiment of goodness. The religion is characterised by its cosmological dualism between the forces of good and evil and by its eschatological vision of Frashokereti, the final renewal of the world. Over several millennia, Zoroastrianism has shaped the culture, history and identity of Iran and continues to be practised today, particularly within communities in India and Iran.

Origins and Early Development

Zoroastrianism emerged from reforms to the ancient Iranian religion during what is known as the Avestan period. Some scholars place its origins as early as the second millennium BCE, although the earliest textual or historical evidence dates from the mid-sixth century BCE. The Achaemenid Empire was the first polity to formalise and institutionalise Zoroastrian practice, integrating numerous ritual, moral and theological elements into imperial governance. Later dynasties, especially the Sasanians, further systematised doctrine and reinforced Zoroastrianism as the state religion.
The rise of Islam in the seventh century CE accompanied a rapid decline in Zoroastrian influence. Following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Zoroastrian communities faced increasing restrictions, leading many adherents to migrate to the Indian subcontinent. There, they established the Parsi community, which has preserved distinctive liturgies, customs and communal institutions. Although once numbering in the millions, modern Zoroastrian communities are relatively small and dispersed, with significant populations in India, Iran and diaspora centres in Europe and North America. Factors contributing to demographic decline include limited conversion, endogamous marriage traditions and low birth rates.

Sacred Texts and Religious Thought

The Avesta forms the core of Zoroastrian scripture. Compiled over many centuries, it includes hymns, liturgical texts, ritual instructions and theological reflections. The most important component is the Gathas, a collection of hymns attributed directly to Zoroaster. These hymns are embedded within the Yasna, the primary liturgical text of the religion, and articulate Zoroaster’s teachings and dialogues with Ahura Mazda.
Zoroaster reinterpreted the pantheon of Proto-Indo-Iranian deities, categorising ahuras as forces to be revered and daevas as malevolent beings to be rejected. This restructuring formed the basis of Zoroastrian moral and cosmic order. Ahura Mazda is portrayed as the supreme creator operating in both the visible (gētīg) material world and the invisible (mēnōg) spiritual realm. His creative activity is mediated through the Amesha Spenta, seven divine emanations representing aspects of the cosmos and moral virtues.
Opposing Ahura Mazda is Angra Mainyu (later known as Ahriman), the destructive spirit associated with deceit, chaos and moral corruption. His influence is seen in druj, the principle of falsehood, which stands in contrast to asha, the divine order encompassing truth, righteousness and cosmic harmony. Human beings participate in this cosmic struggle through moral choice, expressed in the central Zoroastrian ethical triad: good thoughts, good words and good deeds.

Theology and Interpretations

Defining the precise theological categorisation of Zoroastrianism is challenging. Its scriptures accumulated over long periods, incorporating older ritual material alongside later doctrinal developments. As a result, scholars describe the religion using various terms, including monotheistic, polytheistic and henotheistic. Dualism, however, is consistently recognised as a key feature, with the opposition between Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu shaping both cosmology and ethics.
Some scholars argue that early Zoroastrianism emerged from a polytheistic Indo-Iranian tradition, while others emphasise its monotheistic emphasis on a single supreme god. Zoroastrians accept the presence of yazatas, divine beings analogous to angels, who include Anahita, Mithra, Sraosha, Rashnu and Tishtrya. These figures were historically worshipped across Iranian cultures, particularly within pre-Zoroastrian traditions. Interpretations of their status vary: while some authorities regard them as lesser divinities, others present them as emanations subordinate to Ahura Mazda.
During the nineteenth century, significant theological reinterpretation occurred, particularly within the Parsi community in India. Western missionaries criticised Zoroastrian cosmology and ritual, prompting debates over doctrine. The work of the orientalist Martin Haug influenced a widespread redefinition of Zoroastrianism as strictly monotheistic, reframing older deities as symbolic or angelic figures. This understanding became popular among Parsis and circulated internationally, though modern scholarship often takes a more nuanced view.

Core Beliefs and Moral Principles

Zoroastrian ethics emphasise personal responsibility and the continual choice between good and evil. The principle of asha underpins both cosmic order and moral life, guiding adherents towards truthfulness, justice and purity. Conversely, druj represents falsehood, disorder and moral decay. Ritual purity is of particular importance, linked to ancient Iranian reverence for natural elements. Water (ābān) and fire (ātar) are especially sacred. Fire, symbolising Ahura Mazda’s presence and illumination, functions as the focal point of worship in fire temples where it is kept continuously burning.
Zoroastrian religious life includes ceremonies such as the Yasna ritual and personal rites like the Navjote, the initiation ceremony in which a child formally joins the faith. The initiated individual is known as a Behdīn, distinguishing the laity from priestly ranks, which include ervads, mobeds and dasturs.

Etymology and Terminology

The name “Zoroaster” derives from the Greek rendering of the Avestan Zarathustra. Variants such as Zartosht (Persian) and Zaratosht (Gujarati) appear in cultural and liturgical contexts. The term Mazdayasna combines Mazda with yasna (worship), signifying “devotion to Mazda”. English expressions include “Zoroastrian” and the less common “Zarathustrian”. The designation Behdīn (“of the good religion”) is used within ritual contexts to refer to a lay adherent who has undergone initiation.

Rituals, Practices and Institutions

Zoroastrian practice places strong emphasis on ritual purity and veneration of the natural world. Fire temples serve as centres of worship, symbolically linked to the divine energy of Ahura Mazda. Ceremonies involve prayers, offerings and the recitation of sacred texts. Daily observance often includes devotion to maintaining moral purity and adhering to the ethical triad central to the faith.
Zoroastrians historically engaged in funerary practices that avoided contaminating the natural elements, notably through exposure of the dead in dakhmas, or Towers of Silence. Although these practices have changed in many communities, the underlying principles of purity and environmental respect remain influential.

Influence and Cultural Legacy

Zoroastrianism profoundly influenced the cultural and political life of ancient Iran. Concepts such as kingship, justice and cosmic order were deeply embedded in Achaemenid and Sasanian governance. The religion’s impact on neighbouring traditions has long been debated. Some scholars suggest parallels or influences on Western philosophy, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, while others argue that similarities arise largely from shared regional frameworks rather than direct transmission.