Young Turks

The Young Turks were a revolutionary reformist movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries within the Ottoman Empire, seeking to modernise the state, restore constitutional government, and curtail the absolute power of the Sultan. The movement played a decisive role in transforming the Ottoman political landscape and paved the way for the eventual establishment of the Republic of Turkey. The term “Young Turk” has since entered broader political vocabulary to refer to energetic reformers challenging established authority.

Historical Background

By the late nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire was facing severe internal decay and external pressure. Once a powerful empire, it had become known as the “Sick Man of Europe”, burdened by economic difficulties, military defeats, and political inefficiency.
The autocratic rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (r. 1876–1909) intensified opposition among intellectuals, officers, and bureaucrats. Although Abdul Hamid initially promulgated the Ottoman Constitution of 1876, he soon suspended it and dissolved the parliament in 1878, ushering in an era of absolute monarchy.
In this context, reform-minded Ottomans — many of them young military officers and students influenced by Western liberal and nationalist ideas — began to organise secret societies calling for the restoration of constitutional rule. These groups collectively became known as the Young Turks.

Emergence of the Movement

The Young Turk movement originated among Ottoman exiles, students, and intellectuals, particularly in Paris, Geneva, and Cairo. It drew inspiration from earlier reformist groups such as the Young Ottomans, who had advocated constitutionalism and Islamic modernism.
The movement gained momentum during the 1890s, with leaders such as Ahmed Rıza, Prince Sabahaddin, and Mehmet Talaat (Talaat Pasha) emerging as prominent figures. They were united by opposition to the Sultan’s autocracy but differed ideologically:

• Ahmed Rıza favoured centralised administration and positivist thought.
• Prince Sabahaddin supported liberal economic policies and decentralisation.

Despite internal disagreements, they shared a common goal — to restore the 1876 Constitution and modernise the Ottoman Empire politically and socially.

The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)

The most influential organisation within the Young Turk movement was the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), founded in 1889 by medical students at the Imperial Military Medical School in Istanbul. Initially a clandestine society, it grew into a political organisation with a wide network across the empire.
The CUP became the principal driving force of the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, which compelled Sultan Abdul Hamid II to reinstate the suspended constitution and recall parliament. This marked the beginning of the Second Constitutional Era (1908–1918), during which the CUP dominated Ottoman politics.

The 1908 Revolution

The revolution began in July 1908, when Young Turk officers in Macedonia, fearing disintegration of the empire under foreign influence, mutinied and marched towards Istanbul. Confronted by military pressure and widespread support for reform, Sultan Abdul Hamid II reinstated the constitution.
The revolution was initially hailed as a triumph of liberty and modernisation. Political parties and newspapers proliferated, and expectations of democratic reform were high. However, tensions soon emerged between liberal, nationalist, and conservative factions.

The 1909 Counter-Revolution and Consolidation of Power

In April 1909, conservative and Islamist elements in Istanbul attempted to overthrow the constitutional regime in what became known as the 31 March Incident. The uprising was swiftly suppressed by forces loyal to the Young Turks.
Following the crisis, Sultan Abdul Hamid II was deposed and replaced by his brother, Mehmed V, who served largely as a figurehead. The CUP then consolidated its power and began to centralise authority within the government.

Policies and Reforms of the Young Turks

The Young Turks pursued an ambitious programme of modernisation and national integration, although their methods increasingly turned authoritarian.
Key reforms included:

• Administrative and Educational Modernisation: Establishment of secular schools, legal reforms, and a modern bureaucracy.
• Military Reorganisation: Modernisation of the Ottoman army with the assistance of German advisers.
• Economic Nationalism: Efforts to reduce European economic domination and promote domestic industries.
• Promotion of Ottomanism: Initially, the Young Turks aimed to create unity among the empire’s diverse ethnic and religious groups through a shared Ottoman identity.

However, as the empire continued to fragment, the CUP leadership adopted increasingly Turkist and nationalist policies, alienating non-Turkish minorities such as Arabs, Armenians, and Greeks.

The Balkan Wars and World War I

The Young Turk regime faced a series of devastating challenges.

• During the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), the Ottoman Empire lost almost all its remaining European territories, exposing weaknesses in governance and military preparedness.
• In 1913, the CUP took full control of the government through a coup d’état known as the Raid on the Sublime Porte, installing a triumvirate of leaders — Talaat Pasha, Enver Pasha, and Cemal Pasha — often referred to as the Three Pashas.

Under their leadership, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I (1914–1918) as an ally of Germany and Austria-Hungary. The decision was intended to regain lost territories and restore Ottoman prestige but ultimately led to catastrophic consequences, including the empire’s defeat and dissolution.

Controversies and Atrocities

The Young Turk regime remains deeply controversial, particularly for its role in the Armenian Genocide (1915–1917). The CUP government implemented a policy of mass deportation and extermination of Armenians, resulting in the deaths of approximately one million people.
This tragedy has been recognised internationally as one of the first modern genocides, profoundly affecting the historical legacy of the Young Turks.

Decline and Legacy

The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 marked the end of the Young Turk era. The leaders of the CUP fled into exile, and the empire entered a period of Allied occupation and internal turmoil.
Nevertheless, the movement’s political and ideological influence persisted. Many of its ideals — such as secularism, nationalism, and state-led modernisation — were later adopted and refined by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who led the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) and founded the Republic of Turkey in 1923.

Broader Historical Impact

The legacy of the Young Turks can be viewed through multiple lenses:

• Positive Aspects: They introduced parliamentary governance, revived constitutional rule, and modernised aspects of administration and education.
• Negative Aspects: Their increasing authoritarianism, nationalist policies, and suppression of minorities contributed to ethnic tensions and humanitarian disasters.

The term “Young Turk” later became a metaphor in political language to describe any group of young reformers or radicals challenging an established order within political parties, organisations, or institutions.

Influence Beyond the Ottoman Empire

The Young Turk movement also inspired similar reformist and nationalist movements elsewhere, including:

• The Young Egypt and Young Tunisia movements in North Africa.
• The Young Italy and Young Ireland movements in Europe, which sought national unification and political reform.
• Early Arab nationalist and Persian constitutionalist movements that drew inspiration from the Ottoman constitutional model.