Turkey Bird

The turkeys are large ground-dwelling birds belonging to the genus Meleagris, native to North America and notable for their ecological, cultural, and economic importance. Two extant species survive today: the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) of eastern and central North America and the ocellated turkey (Meleagris ocellata) of the Yucatán Peninsula. Both species are distinguished by a prominent fleshy wattle, the snood, which hangs over the beak in males. Turkeys are among the largest birds within their geographical ranges and display pronounced sexual dimorphism typical of the order Galliformes, with males being larger and more brightly coloured than females.

Taxonomy and Evolution

The genus Meleagris was formally introduced by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1758). Its name derives from the Ancient Greek meleagris, meaning guineafowl, reflecting early European attempts to classify the unfamiliar birds of the Americas. Turkeys belong to the family Phasianidae, which also includes pheasants, partridges, junglefowl, and grouse. Modern cladistic studies place them close to grouse, with which they share morphological and behavioural traits.
Turkeys have a deep evolutionary history, with ancestral forms present in North America more than 20 million years ago. Their closest living relatives include pheasants, grouse, and other landfowl. The wild turkey is the progenitor of the domestic turkey, domesticated in Mesoamerica around 2,000 years ago, long before European contact. Domestic stocks were later carried to Europe via the Columbian exchange, returning to North America with European settlers in the 17th century.
The genus currently includes two living species and several fossil forms, such as the Californian turkey (Meleagris californica) and the Southwestern turkey (Meleagris crassipes), both of which inhabited western North America during the Late Pleistocene. Numerous fossil species once proposed for Meleagris have since been synonymised due to natural variation or reassignment to other genera such as Paracrax.

Etymology and Global Naming

The English word turkey is the subject of longstanding debate. One explanation suggests that early European observers misidentified American turkeys as a type of guineafowl, imported via merchants from the Ottoman Empire; the birds thus became known as “Turkey cocks”. Another theory relates to the birds’ arrival in England by way of the Middle East, with the name transferred from the merchants to the animals.
Early adoption of the word is evident: William Strickland, an English navigator credited with introducing turkeys to England, received a coat of arms in 1550 featuring a turkeycock. By Shakespeare’s time, the term was already widespread.
Many European languages reflect the mistaken belief that the birds came from India, echoing Columbus’s misconception that he had reached Asia. French, Russian, Polish, and Ukrainian names all refer to India, while Portuguese uses peru, perhaps inspired by South America. Other unrelated birds—such as brushturkeys (megapodes), the Australian bustard, and the anhinga (“water turkey”)—have acquired the turkey name through superficial resemblance.
A juvenile turkey is commonly called a poult or chick.

Historical Domestication and Cultural Significance

Archaeological and ethnohistorical sources indicate that turkeys were first domesticated in pre-Columbian Mexico. They appear frequently in Mayan codices, where the ocellated turkey held ritual significance among the elite. Spanish chroniclers described their importance in cuisine and market life in Tenochtitlán, noting dishes such as turkey tamales and stews.
The birds entered Spain around 1519, rapidly becoming prestigious among European nobility. They arrived in England by 1541 and were later transported back to North America by English colonists.

Decline and Restoration in the United States

At the time of early European settlement, the United States supported an estimated 10 million wild turkeys. Habitat loss and unregulated hunting reduced their numbers to about 30,000 by the 1930s. Conservation efforts beginning in the 1960s—including trapping and relocation from remnant populations in the Ozarks and parts of New York—led to large-scale reintroduction across states such as Minnesota and Vermont.
Surveys by wildlife biologists indicate that between 2014 and 2019 the wild turkey population in the U.S. declined by roughly 3 per cent, while the number of hunters declined by around 18 per cent. Incomplete data from several states complicates full national estimates.

Human–Turkey Conflicts

As turkey populations expanded into suburban environments, encounters with humans became more frequent. Wild turkeys follow a strict social hierarchy, and habituated birds may interpret humans as rivals or subordinates, prompting aggressive behaviour. Recommendations from local authorities have varied, with some advising intimidation strategies such as noise-making or using umbrellas; however, wildlife agencies generally discourage confrontation, emphasising avoidance and prevention of habituation.

Fossil Evidence

The fossil record of turkeys is extensive due to their robust bones. Key examples include:

• Rhegminornis (Early Miocene), likely an early basal turkey
• Proagriocharis (Late Miocene), a smaller, more distant form
• Numerous Late Miocene to Pleistocene remains attributed to Meleagris, though many purported species are now considered synonymous
• Meleagris californica, known from southern California, extinct in the early Holocene and potentially hunted by early humans
• Meleagris crassipes, from New Mexico
• A turkey-like fossil from Late Miocene Virginia, indicating a wide prehistoric distribution
• Meleagris antiquus, originally described as a turkey but now placed in the genus Paracrax