Turan

Turan is a historical and cultural concept rooted in ancient Iranian tradition and associated with a broad region of Central Asia. While the term has been used in various ways throughout history, its origins lie in the Iranian linguistic and mythological sphere, where Turan denoted the lands and peoples situated beyond the northeastern frontiers of the Iranian world. Over time the name came to be connected with diverse cultures, geographies, and even linguistic theories, although in antiquity it referred specifically to groups considered part of the early Iranian cultural milieu.

Origins and Etymology

The word Turan is derived from Iranian languages and is tied to the ethnonym Tuirya, which appears in the Avesta, the foundational texts of Zoroastrianism. In these texts the Tuiryas or Turanians are portrayed as one of the tribes living adjacent to the Airyas (Iranians). The name is linked mythologically to Tur or Turaj, a son of the mythical king Fereydun. Within Persian tradition, particularly in the Shahnameh, Tur is the eponymous ancestor of the Turanians, establishing a mytho-historical connection between the people and the lands of the northeast.
The etymology of Turan has been debated. Some linguists associate it with an Indo-Iranian root meaning strong or swift, while others tie it to an Old Iranian word meaning dark, possibly describing the nomadic cultures living beyond the settled Iranian lands.

Geographical Scope

The geographical meaning of Turan varied over time, but traditionally referred to areas north and northeast of the Amu Darya, the river that separated Turanian tribes from the Iranian world. Historical maps from the Qajar period and 19th-century European scholarship frequently depict Turan as encompassing:

• Uzbekistan
• Kyrgyzstan
• Tajikistan
• Turkmenistan
• Northern Afghanistan
• Northern Pakistan
• Parts of Kazakhstan, including the northern steppes

Earlier traditions divided Turan into five major regions: the Kopet Dag area, the Atrek valley, and parts of Bactria, Sogdia, and Margiana. These regions include important cultural zones of ancient Central Asia such as Khwarazm, Bukhara, Balkh, Hisor, Kokand, Karategin, and parts of the Pamirs and Hindu Kush.

Turan in Ancient Iranian Literature

The earliest references to Turan occur in Avestan texts such as the Farvardin Yasht, composed roughly 2,500 years ago. These hymns mention the Tuiryas as both adversaries and, at times, supporters of Zoroaster’s teachings. Their personal names appear Iranian, suggesting that Turanians were considered part of the wider Iranian-speaking tribal landscape.
In the Avesta, conflicts between the Tuirya and Airya reflect a wider pattern of rivalry that helped solidify a sense of Iranian identity. Frequently mentioned Turanian figures include Frarasyan (Afrasiab), Aghraethra, Biderafsh, and Arjaspa, who appear both in the Avesta and later in the Shahnameh.

Historical Developments and Changing Identities

During the Sasanian Empire, Turan was conceptualised as the land of Iran’s northeastern enemies, preserving older mythological distinctions. Continuous nomadic incursions from Central Asian steppes reinforced the idea of Turan as a cultural opposite.
Following the 6th century CE, Turkic peoples moved westward and became neighbours of Iran. Over time, this proximity led to the identification of Turanians with Turks, despite the lack of cultural continuity between the original Tuiryas and later Turkic groups. By the early Islamic period, literary works—including the Shahnameh—used the terms Turk and Turanian almost interchangeably, though some historians like Masudi noted that this association arose from later misunderstandings.
In the Safavid period, the term Turan became a geographical and political label applied to the Uzbek domains, which frequently clashed with Safavid Iran.

Turan in the Shahnameh

In Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, Turan is a major setting for the legendary battles between Iranians and Turanians. According to the epic’s foundational myth, Fereydun divided the world among his sons:

• Salm received Anatolia
• Tur received Turan
• Iraj received Iran

The fratricide committed by the elder brothers and the subsequent vengeance enacted by Iraj’s descendants form the basis for the epic’s portrayal of enduring conflict. The Shahnameh references Turan around 150 times, underscoring its centrality in the narrative of Iranian identity formation. The Turanians are depicted as fierce warriors, often led by Afrasiab, and are frequently pitted against Iranian heroes such as Rostam.

Modern Usage and Western Scholarship

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Western scholars adopted the term Turan to describe Central Asia broadly. Maps of the period often placed Turan alongside Iran as complementary cultural zones. The term survives in geographic expressions such as the Turan Plain or Turan Depression, referring to extensive lowland areas in Central Asia.

Linguistic Theories

A now-abandoned classification known as the Turanian languages emerged in 19th-century European linguistics. Scholars such as Max Müller used the term to group together numerous non-Indo-European languages—including Altaic, Uralic, Dravidian, Japanese, and Korean—based on shared typological features rather than historical linguistic relationships. These theories are no longer accepted, as modern linguistics recognises limited or no genetic links between many of these language groups.
Nevertheless, the concept reflects the era’s fascination with defining large cultural-linguistic blocs and the tendency to associate the peoples of Central and Inner Asia with the ancient Turanians of Iranian epic tradition.