Shruti and Smriti

In the context of ancient Indian literature and philosophy, Shruti and Smriti represent two distinct yet interconnected categories of sacred texts that form the foundation of Hindu thought, belief, and cultural tradition. Both terms are derived from Sanskrit, where Shruti means “that which is heard” and Smriti means “that which is remembered.” Together, they constitute the scriptural canon of Hinduism, embodying divine revelation, human interpretation, and the transmission of spiritual knowledge across generations.

Meaning and Etymology

The term Shruti originates from the Sanskrit root śru, meaning “to hear.” It refers to texts that are considered divinely revealed and directly heard by ancient sages or rishis in deep states of meditation. These scriptures are deemed eternal and authorless (apauruṣeya), implying that they were not composed by humans but revealed to them.
In contrast, Smriti stems from the root smṛ, meaning “to remember.” These texts are remembered, composed, and transmitted by humans based on divine principles already contained within Shruti. Smriti literature is therefore considered secondary to Shruti in authority but crucial for practical application, codifying the moral, legal, and social guidelines for everyday life.

Classification and Examples

Shruti primarily comprises the Vedic corpus, which includes four main divisions:

• Rigveda – a collection of hymns dedicated to various deities.
• Yajurveda – a compilation of sacrificial formulas and rituals.
• Samaveda – melodic chants and hymns primarily used in rituals.
• Atharvaveda – hymns dealing with everyday concerns such as health and protection.

Each Veda is further divided into four parts:

1. Samhitas – hymns and mantras.
2. Brahmanas – prose texts explaining rituals and ceremonies.
3. Aranyakas – “forest treatises” focused on meditation and symbolic interpretation.
4. Upanishads – philosophical discourses on ultimate reality (Brahman) and the self (Atman).

Smriti, on the other hand, includes a vast array of texts composed over centuries:

• Dharmaśāstras (e.g., Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti): outlining social laws and moral duties.
• Itihasas: the two great epics — Ramayana and Mahabharata — which narrate moral and historical tales.
• Puranas: mythological accounts of gods, creation, and cosmology, such as the Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana.
• Sutras and Shastras: treatises on diverse subjects including grammar (Panini’s Ashtadhyayi), politics (Arthashastra), and philosophy (Yoga Sutra).

Nature and Authority

The key distinction between Shruti and Smriti lies in their perceived source of knowledge and authority. Shruti, being divine revelation, is infallible and eternal, transcending time and human authorship. It provides the metaphysical and spiritual framework for understanding reality, guiding philosophical inquiry and ritual practice.
Smriti, conversely, is contextual and adaptive. It interprets and systematises Shruti for changing societal circumstances. Its authority is considered valid only when consistent with Shruti; any Smriti contradicting Shruti is deemed unauthoritative. This hierarchical relationship reflects the classical Indian epistemological system, which values revelation (Shruti), reason, and memory in descending order.

Historical Development

The composition of Shruti texts, particularly the Vedas, is dated between approximately 1500 and 500 BCE, during the early Vedic period. They were preserved through an oral tradition of precise recitation, ensuring phonetic and structural integrity. The memorisation and recitation techniques, such as padapatha and kramapatha, demonstrate extraordinary intellectual discipline.
Smriti literature emerged later, from roughly 600 BCE onwards, as societies grew more complex. The Dharmashastras and Puranas developed between 500 BCE and 500 CE, reflecting social evolution, political institutions, and cultural diversity. The Mahabharata and Ramayana, originally oral epics, were gradually compiled into written forms, embodying both moral and narrative dimensions.

Philosophical and Social Dimensions

Shruti provides the philosophical foundation of Hinduism through its exploration of metaphysical truths. The Upanishads, for instance, articulate profound doctrines such as Brahman (universal spirit), Atman (self), karma, and moksha (liberation). They form the cornerstone of Hindu philosophical schools like Vedanta.
Smriti, meanwhile, operates as the ethical and social framework. It translates abstract principles into practical duties (dharma), regulating individual behaviour, caste roles, and stages of life (ashramas). The Manusmriti delineates laws governing family, inheritance, and justice, while the Arthashastra prescribes political and economic conduct. The epics and Puranas further humanise these principles through narratives that exemplify virtues such as duty, devotion, and righteousness.

Relationship and Interdependence

Although distinct in origin and authority, Shruti and Smriti are complementary rather than contradictory. Shruti provides the eternal truths; Smriti offers their worldly manifestation. For instance, the concept of Dharma arises from Shruti but is interpreted and elaborated within Smriti. This interplay maintains the flexibility of Hinduism, allowing it to adapt across eras without losing its core spiritual essence.
Traditional Hindu law and practice rely on a fourfold hierarchy of sources: Shruti, Smriti, custom (achara), and conscience (atma tushti). This framework ensures a balance between divine command, human reasoning, and social realities.

Contemporary Relevance

In modern scholarship and religious practice, Shruti continues to be revered as the spiritual foundation of Hinduism, studied for its philosophical depth and linguistic sophistication. The Upanishads, in particular, have influenced global thinkers, including Arthur Schopenhauer and Aldous Huxley.
Smriti remains central to understanding Hindu ethics, law, and mythology, offering insights into ancient Indian civilisation and cultural identity. While some Smriti texts, such as the Manusmriti, have faced criticism for their social hierarchies, they remain vital historical sources for understanding ancient jurisprudence and social norms. Modern reinterpretations emphasise the contextual nature of these texts, distinguishing eternal principles from temporal regulations.