Russia

The Russian Federation (Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is the world’s largest country, spanning Europe and Asia and functioning as a historical and geopolitical bridge between the two continents. Its vast geography, resource wealth, and centuries-long evolution—from medieval principality to global power—have profoundly shaped Eurasian and world affairs. Today, Russia’s identity combines imperial legacies, Soviet experience, and contemporary state centralisation, sustaining its influence across political, military, and cultural domains.

Historical Background

Medieval origins and imperial riseThe roots of the Russian state trace back to the 12th century with the Principality of Muscovy, which expanded after centuries of Mongol domination (13th–15th centuries). Moscow emerged as the centre of resistance and unification, paving the way for a centralised monarchy.
The Romanov dynasty (from 1613) consolidated autocracy and expanded Russia’s borders across Siberia to the Pacific Ocean. Under Peter the Great (1682–1725), Russia underwent sweeping modernisation and westernisation, gaining access to the Baltic Sea and establishing St Petersburg as a new imperial capital. His successors, notably Catherine the Great (1762–1796), extended influence deep into Eastern Europe and Central Asia, transforming Russia into one of the largest empires in history.
Revolution and Soviet powerMilitary defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) and the strain of World War I exposed imperial weaknesses, culminating in the Revolutions of 1917. The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the monarchy and established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922.
Under Joseph Stalin (1928–1953), the USSR industrialised rapidly but endured massive purges, famine, and forced collectivisation. Despite this, the Soviet Union emerged from World War II as a superpower, dominating Eastern Europe and entering a decades-long Cold War with the United States.
Collapse and post-Soviet transformationBy the 1980s, economic stagnation and reform efforts under Mikhail Gorbachev (glasnost and perestroika) weakened the communist system, leading to the USSR’s dissolution in 1991. The Russian Federation, led initially by Boris Yeltsin, struggled with hyperinflation, privatisation, and political instability.
Since Vladimir Putin’s rise to power in 2000, Russia has pursued centralised governance, national consolidation, and assertive foreign policy. The annexation of Crimea (2014) and invasion of Ukraine (2022) marked major geopolitical ruptures, triggering unprecedented Western sanctions and deepening Russia’s pivot toward Asia.

Geography and Natural Environment

• Area: 17,098,242 sq km — largest in the world
• Time zones: 11
• Borders: 14 countries (including China, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Finland, and Norway)
• Coastline: 37,653 km (Arctic and Pacific Oceans, Baltic and Black Seas)

Russia’s landscape includes the East European Plain, Ural Mountains (dividing Europe and Asia), Siberian Plateau, and mountain ranges in the Caucasus and Far East. Major rivers include the Volga, Ob, Lena, and Yenisei, and Lake Baikal—the world’s deepest and oldest freshwater lake—contains roughly 20% of Earth’s unfrozen freshwater.
Climate: Predominantly continental and subarctic, with permafrost across much of Siberia. Summers are short and warm; winters are long and severe.
Natural resources: Russia possesses some of the world’s largest reserves of oil, natural gas, coal, nickel, diamonds, gold, and timber, alongside extensive fertile land. However, environmental degradation, Arctic warming, and pollution from heavy industry present persistent challenges.
Environmental concerns: Air pollution, deforestation, soil erosion, and contamination from Soviet-era nuclear testing remain significant. Russia participates in the Paris Climate Agreement, though enforcement and emissions reductions remain limited.

Demographics and Society

• Population (2024): ~140.8 million
• Growth rate: −0.49%
• Median age: 41.9 years
• Urban population: ≈ 75%
• Major cities: Moscow (12.7M), St Petersburg (5.5M), Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod

Ethnic composition: Russian 77.7%, Tatar 3.7%, Ukrainian 1.4%, Bashkir 1.2%, Chechen 1%, others ≈15%.
Language: Russian (official); over 100 minority and regional languages (e.g., Tatar, Chechen, Bashkir).
Religion: Russian Orthodoxy is the dominant faith; Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism are also officially recognised. Post-Soviet revival has seen increased religious observance and church-state cooperation.
Health indicators:

• Life expectancy: 72.3 years (men 67.4, women 77.4)
• Fertility rate: 1.52 children per woman
• Health expenditure: ~5.6% of GDP
• Persistent challenges: alcohol- and tobacco-related diseases, population ageing, and rural healthcare gaps.

Government and Political Structure

Russia is a semi-presidential federation established by the Constitution of 1993.

• President: Vladimir Putin (re-elected 2024, 88.5% of vote) — head of state, commander-in-chief
• Prime Minister: Mikhail Mishustin — head of government

Legislature:

• Federal Assembly (bicameral)
  • State Duma: 450 deputies (lower house)
  • Federation Council: 170 members (upper house)The United Russia party holds a dominant majority, ensuring executive control over legislation.

Judiciary: Formally independent, but subject to political influence. Key courts include the Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, and Arbitration Court.
Administrative divisions: 85 federal subjects—21 republics, 9 krais, 46 oblasts, 4 autonomous okrugs, 1 autonomous oblast, and 2 federal cities (Moscow, St Petersburg).Disputed territories: Crimea and parts of eastern Ukraine, internationally recognised as occupied regions.

Economy and Natural Resources

• GDP (PPP, 2024): $6.1 trillion (4th globally)
• GDP per capita (PPP): ≈ $43,000
• Growth rate: 4.3% (2024)
• Inflation: 5.4%
• Unemployment: 2.6%
• Public debt: ~18% of GDP

Economic structure:

• Services — 57.5%
• Industry — 30.7%
• Agriculture — 2.7%

Russia’s economy is resource-dependent, with hydrocarbons—oil, natural gas, and coal—comprising more than half of export revenues. Major industrial sectors include metallurgy, chemicals, armaments, and aerospace.
Trade partners: China (34%), India, Turkey, and members of the Eurasian Economic Union.Sanctions: Western sanctions post-2014 and 2022 have spurred import substitution and tighter integration with Asian markets.
Foreign reserves: ~$597 billion (6th globally).Poverty: 12%; Gini index: 35.1 (moderate inequality).

Defence, Space, and Foreign Policy

Armed Forces: 1.1–1.2 million active troops, plus ~350,000 National Guard.

• Branches: Ground Forces, Navy, Aerospace Forces, Airborne Troops, Strategic Missile Forces.
• Defence spending: ≈ 7% of GDP (2024).
• Nuclear arsenal: Estimated >5,500 warheads, maintaining parity with the United States.

Russia retains significant power-projection capabilities through operations in Ukraine, Syria, the Caucasus, and parts of Africa. Its alliances and partnerships are concentrated in BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU).
Space programme: The Roscosmos State Corporation and the Russian Space Forces continue a long legacy of spaceflight, with operations at Baikonur, Vostochny, and Plesetsk.

Culture and Global Influence

Russia’s cultural achievements are foundational to world civilisation.

• Literature: Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Pushkin
• Music: Tchaikovsky, Rachmaninoff, Stravinsky
• Science: Mendeleev, Pavlov, and Nobel laureates in physics and chemistry
• Art and architecture: from the Kremlin’s onion domes to St Petersburg’s baroque palaces

UNESCO World Heritage Sites: 32, including the Kremlin and Red Square, Historic Centre of St Petersburg, Kizhi Pogost, and the Volcanoes of Kamchatka.
Modern Russia sustains a powerful media, scientific, and artistic presence—from film and literature to ballet and cyber technology—despite increasing state control over information and expression.