Red Army

The Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army, commonly known as the Red Army, served as the principal land and air force of the Russian Soviet Republic from its formation in 1918 and, after 1922, of the Soviet Union. Established during the turbulence of the Russian Civil War, the Red Army emerged as an institution central to the consolidation of Bolshevik power, the defence of Soviet territory and ideology, and the projection of Soviet influence throughout the twentieth century. In 1946 it was formally renamed the Soviet Army, and, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, its forces were divided among the successor states, with Russia inheriting the largest component.
The Red Army’s historical significance is closely tied to its decisive role in defeating Nazi Germany on the Eastern Front during the Second World War. Its campaigns inflicted the majority of German military casualties and culminated in the capture of Berlin in May 1945. Later engagement in the Far East against Japan further contributed to the conclusion of the global conflict.

Origins and Formation

The collapse of the Imperial Russian Army during 1917 created a vast vacuum in military organisation. Although some nineteen million men had been mobilised under Tsarist rule, a substantial portion lacked adequate equipment, and many occupied auxiliary roles. Desertions were widespread, and by late 1917 even senior officers acknowledged the army’s disintegration.
In this context, the Bolshevik leadership recognised the urgent need to create a new, disciplined force capable of defending the revolutionary government. On 28 January 1918, the Council of People’s Commissars issued a decree establishing the Red Army. Inspired by ideological notions of a “nation in arms”, the Bolsheviks sought to form a force drawn from “class-conscious and best elements of the working classes”. All citizens aged eighteen or older were deemed eligible, and enlistment required endorsement from political or military committees aligned with Soviet power.
The early Red Army relied heavily on peasant conscripts, whose families were guaranteed rations and agricultural assistance. Enthusiasm for service often exceeded the army’s organisational capacity, with volunteers contributing labour or materials when they could not be enlisted. The Council of People’s Commissars assumed overall authority, and early administrative responsibilities were assigned to the Commissariat for Military Affairs. Figures such as Nikolai Krylenko, Aleksandr Myasnikyan, Pavel Dybenko and Nikolai Podvoisky held prominent roles in shaping the army’s formative structures.
Yet the infant Red Army initially faced severe challenges. Commanders complained of demoralisation, disorganisation and the inability of Red Guard detachments to resist experienced adversaries. These conditions underscored the necessity for profound military reform.

The Russian Civil War

The Red Army’s first major test came during the Russian Civil War, a multi-front conflict between Bolshevik forces and a diverse coalition of opponents. These included the White armies, Cossack hosts resisting Bolshevik policies, monarchists, supporters of the former Provisional Government, anarchist formations such as the Makhnovists, and foreign intervention forces from twelve Allied countries.
The civil war is often divided into three phases:

• October 1917 – November 1918: Following the October Revolution and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, opposition consolidated in regions such as the Don, where General Alexey Kaledin led the Volunteer Army. The treaty and Bolshevik policies encouraged Allied intervention and intensified internal conflict.
• January 1919 – November 1919: Major offensives by the White armies achieved early gains. Generals Anton Denikin, Aleksandr Kolchak and Nikolai Yudenich launched simultaneous advances from the south, east and northwest. Under Leon Trotsky’s leadership, however, the Red Army implemented sweeping reforms and mounted effective counter-offensives, ultimately defeating these campaigns by late 1919.
• 1919 – 1923: While the main fronts collapsed, peripheral conflicts persisted for several years, particularly in Siberia and the Far East. Remnants of White forces continued to resist until 1923.

At the outset of the civil war, the Red Army comprised roughly 299 infantry regiments. As the conflict escalated, the Bolsheviks confronted independence movements across the former imperial periphery, including the Ukrainian People’s Republic, which fought multiple campaigns against Soviet forces before incorporation into the Soviet Union.

Reorganisation and Command

Leon Trotsky, appointed People’s Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs in March 1918, implemented far-reaching measures to transform the Red Army into a disciplined and effective force. Workers’ control was abolished, elected officers were replaced with hierarchical command structures, and military discipline was restored through strict regulations, including the introduction of capital punishment for desertion or insubordination.
A striking feature of Trotsky’s reforms was the large-scale recruitment of former Tsarist officers, known as voenspetsy, as professional advisors and commanders. Although ideological tensions surrounded their employment, Bolshevik authorities mitigated loyalty concerns by taking family members hostage in some cases. By 1918, approximately 75 per cent of Red Army officers had served under the old regime, and by the civil war’s end in 1922, ex-Tsarist personnel accounted for 83 per cent of officer corps positions. This infusion of professional expertise significantly enhanced the army’s operational capabilities.

The Red Army in the Second World War

The Red Army underwent dramatic expansion and reorganisation in the interwar period before facing its most formidable challenge after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. During the ensuing conflict—known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War—the Red Army bore the brunt of the struggle against the Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS.
Over the course of the war, up to 34 million Soviet citizens served in the Red Army, including around eight million personnel from non-Slavic ethnic minorities. Casualty levels were immense. Official figures record over 6.3 million killed in action, more than half a million deaths from disease and approximately 4.6 million personnel listed as missing in action. Of those missing, some 939,700 returned to Soviet units and approximately 1.8 million survived German captivity. The officially consolidated total of military losses stands at 8.7 million, though other historical estimates extend the figure to nearly eleven million. Archival records continue to document additional names of fallen service members.
The Red Army’s battlefield achievements were pivotal. It inflicted between 75 and 80 per cent of the total German military casualties suffered during the war, recaptured vast territories occupied by Axis forces and culminated its European campaign with the seizure of Berlin in May 1945. In August 1945, the Red Army’s rapid invasion of Manchuria contributed to the final defeat of Japan.

Post-war Transformation and Legacy

In February 1946, the Red Army was officially redesignated as the Soviet Army, reflecting broader structural reforms within the Soviet Armed Forces. For the remainder of the twentieth century, Soviet military power played a central role in Cold War geopolitics, influencing conflicts, strategic balances and international relations.
With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, its military forces were apportioned among the newly independent states, though Russia inherited the majority. The modern Russian Ground Forces are widely regarded as the direct successor to the Red Army’s organisational lineage.