Ramayana

The Ramayana—traditionally attributed to the sage Vālmīki—is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Mahābhārata. Regarded as a smṛti text within the wider body of Hindu literature, it is foundational to the cultural, moral and religious life of South Asia and has also exerted profound influence across Southeast Asia. The epic narrates the life, exile and triumphal return of Rāma, the seventh incarnation of Viṣṇu, presenting ideals of dharma (righteousness) and the duties of individuals within society.
Comprising nearly 24,000 ślokas, arranged in seven kāṇḍas, the Ramayana is one of the longest surviving works of ancient literature. Its central narrative recounts the exile of Prince Rāma from Ayodhyā, the abduction of his wife Sītā by Rāvaṇa—the king of Laṅkā—and the ensuing confrontation between the forces of dharma and adharma. The epic culminates in Rāma’s victory, Sītā’s recovery, and their return to Ayodhyā for Rāma’s consecration as king.

Etymology and Conceptual Meaning

The name Rāmāyaṇa is derived from the Sanskrit components Rāma and ayana (“journey” or “path”), meaning “the journey of Rāma”. The name Rāma itself carries two distinct connotations in early Sanskrit sources: in the Atharvaveda, it refers to a dark or still quality, while in the Mahābhārata, it conveys loveliness and charm. The title thus encapsulates both the hero’s central role and the unfolding of his moral and personal journey.

Dating and Composition

The composition of the Ramayana occurred over several centuries. Modern scholarly estimates place the earliest strata of the text between the 7th–5th and 5th–4th centuries BCE, with subsequent layers extending into the early centuries CE. According to Robert P. Goldman, the core narrative predates the rise of Buddhism and the Magadhan empire, suggesting that key portions originated no later than the 6th or 5th century BCE.
Books II–VI (Ayodhyākāṇḍa to Yuddhakāṇḍa) are considered the oldest sections of the epic. The first and final books, the Bālakāṇḍa and Uttarakāṇḍa, display stylistic differences and contain episodes seen by many scholars as later additions. The oldest manuscripts lack these two kāṇḍas, indicating that the narrative grew over time through interpolation and reinterpretation.

Literary Nature and Genre

The Ramayana belongs to the genre of Itihāsa, which combines legendary history with moral and philosophical instruction. Like the Mahābhārata, it presents examples of idealised human roles: the ideal son, brother, wife, husband, companion and ruler. Its narrative framework serves as an allegory for ethical principles, interwoven with episodes that expound dharma and the aims of life (puruṣārthas).
Although deeply embedded in mythological and theological themes, the epic also contains sociopolitical reflections, especially on kingship, justice and the responsibilities of rulers towards their subjects.

Structure and Recensions

In its extant form, the Ramayana is divided into seven kāṇḍas:

• Bālakāṇḍa
• Ayodhyākāṇḍa
• Araṇyakāṇḍa
• Kiṣkindhākāṇḍa
• Sundarakāṇḍa
• Yuddhakāṇḍa
• Uttarakāṇḍa

Across centuries, the text developed numerous regional recensions, notably the northern and southern versions identified by textual scholars. Each recension reflects variations in language, theology and narrative emphasis.

Retellings and Regional Traditions

The epic has generated an extensive tradition of adaptations across South and Southeast Asia. Versions exist in languages including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Assamese, Bengali, Odia, Marathi, Awadhi, Malayalam and Bhojpuri. Significant regional renderings include:

• Kamban’s Rāmāvatāram (Tamil, 12th century)
• Kumudendu Muni’s Kumudendu Rāmāyaṇa (Jain tradition)
• Torave Rāmāyaṇa* (Kannada, 16th century)
• Kṛttivāsi Rāmāyaṇa (Bengali, 15th century)
• Jagamohana Rāmāyaṇa (Odia, 16th century)
• Eknāth’s Bhāvārtha Rāmāyaṇa (Marathi, 16th century)
• Tulsidas’s Rāmcaritmānas (Awadhi/Hindi, 16th century)
• Adhyātma Rāmāyaṇam Kilippaṭṭu (Malayalam)

Beyond India, the story appears in numerous cultural forms, such as the Khmer Reamker, Thai Ramakien, Lao Phra Lak Phra Lam, Burmese Yama Zatdaw, Nepali and Tibetan versions, Malay Hikayat Seri Rama, and adaptations throughout Indonesia and the Philippines.

Cultural and Religious Influence

The Ramayana has profoundly shaped Hindu values, iconography and social ideals. It reinforces the primacy of virtue, loyalty, truthfulness and duty. The concept of Rāmarājya—a perfectly just and ethical kingdom—has become a paradigm for good governance and stable society. The epic also influenced the development of later Sanskrit poetry and devotional literature.
Its characters, such as Rāma, Sītā, Lakṣmaṇa, Hanumān, Bharata and Rāvaṇa, occupy central positions in South Asian religious consciousness. Their actions, virtues and failings serve as models for moral reflection and spiritual teaching.

Synopsis of Key Events

The epic opens with the sage Vālmīki asking the heavenly sage Nārada whether a truly righteous man exists. Upon hearing that Rāma embodies this ideal, Vālmīki composes the poem in newly inspired śloka metre. His pupils Lava and Kuśa recite it widely, eventually performing it before Rāma himself.
The main narrative recounts the following events:

• King Daśaratha of Ayodhyā, longing for heirs, performs a sacred rite. His wives Kaushalyā, Kaikeyī and Sumitrā give birth to Rāma, Bharata, Lakṣmaṇa and Śatrughna.
• At sixteen, Rāma accompanies the sage Viśvāmitra to protect sacrificial rites from demonic interference, receiving divine weapons and training.
• He wins Sītā’s hand by breaking the great bow of King Janaka of Mithilā.
• Influenced by Kaikeyī’s demands, Daśaratha orders Rāma’s exile for fourteen years; Sītā and Lakṣmaṇa accompany him.
• During their forest exile, Rāvaṇa abducts Sītā, prompting Rāma’s alliance with the vanara forces led by Hanumān and Sugrīva.
• After Sītā’s rescue and Rāvaṇa’s defeat in Laṅkā, the exiles return to Ayodhyā, where Rāma is consecrated king amid widespread celebration.

Enduring Significance

The Ramayana remains a defining work of Indian civilisation. Its wide circulation, numerous retellings and continued performance traditions—from classical Sanskrit recitations to folk theatre, dance, and modern media—signal its enduring vitality. More than a narrative of divine incarnation and heroic deeds, it serves as a moral, philosophical and cultural touchstone across diverse communities and regions.