Physical geography

Physical geography, also known as physiography, is one of the principal branches of geography and focuses on the study of the natural environment and the physical processes operating on the Earth’s surface. It encompasses the analysis of landforms, climate, soil, water, ecosystems and the interactions between these natural components. As a core field of geographical science, physical geography provides essential insight into how the Earth functions as an integrated system and how physical processes shape landscapes, influence biological distribution, and contribute to environmental change.

Major Subfields of Physical Geography

Physical geography is a broad discipline consisting of numerous specialised areas, each concerned with a particular component or process of the natural environment.
Geomorphology examines the Earth’s lithosphere and the processes that shape landforms. It includes the study of tectonic, climatic and surface processes that create features such as mountains, valleys, river channels and desert dunes. Subfields include desert geomorphology, fluvial geomorphology and geomorphometry. Early geomorphological studies provided a foundation for pedology, linking landform development with soil formation. The discipline employs field observations, laboratory experiments and numerical models to reconstruct landform evolution and predict future changes.
Hydrology deals with the movement, distribution and properties of water on and beneath the Earth’s surface. It encompasses rivers, lakes, aquifers and aspects of glacial water systems. Hydrology is closely connected with engineering owing to its emphasis on quantitative methods, particularly in water resource management and flood forecasting. Subfields include limnology, ecohydrology and surface-water hydrology.
Glaciology focuses on glaciers, ice sheets and the cryosphere. It distinguishes between continental glaciers (ice sheets) and alpine glaciers. Research areas include the dynamics of ice flow, the interaction of ice masses with climate and the geomorphological impact of glaciers. Subdisciplines include snow hydrology, glacial geology and cryospheric modelling.
Biogeography studies the spatial patterns of species distributions and the processes that shape these patterns. Influenced by evolutionary theory, plate tectonics and island biogeography, biogeography includes several branches such as island biogeography, paleobiogeography, phylogeography, zoogeography and phytogeography. The field explores how organisms interact with the environment and adapt to physical constraints across space and time.
Climatology investigates climate, defined as long-term patterns of weather. It covers microclimates, regional climates and global climate systems, as well as both natural and human-induced influences on climate. Subfields include tropical climatology, rainfall climatology and paleoclimatology. Climatology plays an essential role in understanding weather extremes, climate variability and ongoing climate change.
Soil geography examines the spatial distribution of soils across the landscape. Closely aligned with pedology, it studies pedogenesis, soil morphology and classification. Soil geography analyses how soils vary with topography, vegetation, climate and biological activity and explores embedded biogeochemical cycles.
Palaeogeography reconstructs the historical distribution of continents and oceans using geological evidence such as fossils and palaeomagnetism. It supports theories such as continental drift, plate tectonics and supercontinent cycles, including the Wilson cycle. The field sheds light on past climates, ancient ecosystems and Earth’s dynamic structure.
Coastal geography focuses on the interface between land and sea, incorporating elements of coastal geomorphology, geology, oceanography and human use of coastal zones. It investigates coastal erosion, wave action, sediment transport and sea-level change. Human interactions, including coastal defence and development, are also key considerations.
Oceanography covers the physical, chemical, biological and geological study of oceans. Topics include marine ecosystems, ocean circulation, waves, geophysical fluid dynamics, plate tectonics of the sea floor and ocean chemistry. Oceanography synthesises knowledge from numerous scientific disciplines to understand ocean processes and their influence on global systems.
Quaternary science studies the Quaternary period—the last 2.6 million years—characterised by glacial–interglacial cycles. It reconstructs past environments using proxy evidence such as pollen, ice cores and sediments. The discipline contributes to understanding climate variability and the development of modern ecosystems.
Landscape ecology analyses how spatial variation in landscapes influences ecological processes. It investigates the movement of energy, materials and organisms across heterogeneous environments. Originating from the work of Carl Troll, the field often integrates applied approaches to land management. It differs from biogeography in its focus on ecological flows rather than species distribution alone.
Geomatics encompasses the collection, storage, processing and analysis of spatial data. It includes geodesy, which measures the Earth’s shape and gravitational field, cartography, and geographic information science. Remote sensing—data collection from aircraft or satellites—forms an essential part of geomatics and supports environmental monitoring and spatial analysis.
Environmental geography bridges physical and human geography by studying interactions between human societies and the natural environment. It examines environmental management, sustainability, land-use change and anthropogenic impacts on natural systems. Although historically linked with environmental determinism, modern environmental geography takes a more integrative and critical approach.

Journals and Literature

Physical geography and Earth science research is disseminated through a diverse range of scientific journals. Unlike human geographers, physical geographers commonly publish in interdisciplinary journals reflecting the scientific and technical orientation of the field. Academic outputs typically take the form of peer-reviewed scientific papers based on empirical and theoretical investigations.
Examples of journals that frequently publish work from physical geographers include:

• The Professional Geographer
• Journal of Maps
• Earth Surface Processes and Landforms
• Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences
• Nature

Textbooks, specialist monographs and scientific magazines also contribute to public communication of geographical knowledge, often with a focus on environmental issues and global challenges.

Historical Evolution of the Discipline

From its origins in the classical Greek period until the nineteenth century, geography existed largely as a natural science concerned with describing the physical characteristics of the known world. During this era, geographical works provided systematic catalogues of places, landscapes and natural features.
Physical geography emerged as a distinct scientific field as scholars began seeking explanations for natural processes rather than merely describing them. The nineteenth century saw rapid advances associated with the development of geomorphology, climatology and oceanography. The subsequent rise of human geography introduced new divisions within the discipline, but physical geography maintained its foundational role in understanding Earth systems.
Throughout the twentieth century, technological advancements such as remote sensing, computing and improved field methods reshaped physical geography. The integration of quantitative analysis, systems theory and spatial modelling further strengthened the scientific basis of the discipline. Today, physical geography remains essential for addressing global challenges including climate change, natural hazards, environmental degradation and resource management.