Peru

The Republic of Peru, located on the western coast of South America, is a nation of exceptional geographical diversity and cultural depth. Bordered by Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia and Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west, Peru encompasses coastal deserts, towering Andean peaks, and the vast Amazon rainforest. Long regarded as the heartland of ancient Andean civilisation, it remains a country of profound historical significance and contemporary contrasts—an upper-middle-income democracy marked by both dynamic economic growth and enduring political instability.

Historical Background

The territory now known as Peru was the cradle of the Inca Empire, the largest and most sophisticated civilisation in pre-Columbian South America. From their capital at Cusco, the Incas governed an empire that extended from present-day Colombia to Chile, constructing monumental architecture such as Machu Picchu, now a global heritage icon.
In 1533, Spanish conquistadors under Francisco Pizarro defeated the Inca ruler Atahualpa, inaugurating three centuries of Spanish colonial rule. The founding of Lima in 1535 established the city as the administrative centre of the Viceroyalty of Peru, a linchpin of Spain’s American empire.
Peruvian independence, declared by José de San Martín on 28 July 1821 and secured at the Battle of Ayacucho (1824), marked the beginning of the republic. However, the 19th century was marred by political turbulence and wars, most notably the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), in which Peru and Bolivia suffered defeat and territorial loss to Chile.
The 20th century saw alternating cycles of authoritarianism, reform, and democracy. A military regime led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado (1968–1980) pursued agrarian reform and nationalisation, followed by a return to democracy in 1980. However, the ensuing decades were dominated by economic crises and violent insurgencies, particularly from the Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) and MRTA.
Under President Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), Peru achieved economic stabilisation and defeated insurgents but at the cost of human rights abuses and authoritarian control. His resignation amid corruption scandals in 2000 opened a new democratic era under Alejandro Toledo, the nation’s first Indigenous president.
Since 2001, political instability has persisted, with successive presidents—Alan García, Ollanta Humala, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, Martín Vizcarra, and Pedro Castillo—embroiled in corruption allegations or impeachments. Dina Boluarte, who assumed the presidency in December 2022, became Peru’s first female head of state but faces widespread protest and legislative opposition, reflecting deep disillusionment with political elites.

Geography and Environment

• Area: 1,285,216 sq km (21st largest globally)
• Regions:
  • Costa (Coast) – a dry Pacific plain and centre of population and industry
  • Sierra (Highlands) – part of the Andes, containing Peru’s highest peak, Nevado Huascarán (6,768 m)
  • Selva (Amazon Basin) – dense tropical rainforest covering over 50% of national territory

Peru lies within the Pacific Ring of Fire, prone to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. It shares Lake Titicaca, the world’s highest navigable lake, with Bolivia. The Humboldt Current supports one of the richest fisheries on earth.
Natural resources: copper, gold, silver, zinc, iron ore, petroleum, and natural gas.Environmental issues: deforestation (notably in the Amazon), water contamination from mining, and urban air pollution.Climate: tropical in the Amazon, arid on the coast, and alpine in the Andes.
Peru is a signatory to the Paris Agreement and actively promotes renewable energy and biodiversity conservation through international frameworks.

People and Society

• Population (2024): 32.6 million
• Urbanisation: 79%
• Capital: Lima (11+ million inhabitants)
• Median age: 31.2 years
• Fertility rate: 2.15 children per woman
• Life expectancy: 68.9 years

Ethnic composition:

• Mestizo – 60%
• Indigenous – 26%
• White – 6%
• Afro-Peruvian, Chinese, Japanese, and other minorities – 8%

Languages:

• Spanish (82.9%, official nationwide)
• Quechua and Aymara (co-official in Indigenous regions)

Religion:

• Roman Catholic – 76%
• Evangelical Christian – 15%
• Others/None – 9%

Social indicators:

• Literacy – 94%
• Poverty rate – 27.5%
• Gini index – 40.7
• Maternal mortality – 51 deaths per 100,000 live births
• Infant mortality – 10.8 per 1,000 births
• Health expenditure – 6.2% of GDP
• Access to safe water – 94.8%

Peru remains a society of stark regional contrasts—modern, urbanised coastal zones coexist with remote, underdeveloped highland and jungle communities.

Government and Politics

• Official name: República del Perú
• System: Presidential republic
• Constitution: Adopted in 1993
• President: Dina Ercilia Boluarte Zegarra (since 2022)
• Prime Minister: Eduardo Arana Ysa (2025)
• Legislature: Unicameral Congress of the Republic (130 members)

The President serves as head of state and government for a five-year term, with no immediate re-election. The Congress, elected by proportional representation, has a 41.5% female membership—among the region’s highest.
Judiciary: Civil law system comprising the Supreme Court, Superior Courts, and Peace Courts.
Despite constitutional guarantees, politics remain volatile: frequent cabinet reshuffles, weak party structures, and high public distrust undermine governance. Since 2000, every elected president has faced prosecution or imprisonment for corruption.
The next general elections are scheduled for April 2026.

Economy

Peru possesses one of South America’s most diversified economies, combining mining, agriculture, manufacturing, and services.

• GDP (PPP, 2024): $535.9 billion
• GDP per capita (PPP): $16,450
• Real GDP growth: 3.3%
• Inflation: 2%
• Public debt: 35% of GDP
• Currency: Nuevo sol (PEN) — 1 USD = 3.74 PEN (2023)

Sectoral composition:

• Agriculture – 6.1%
• Industry – 32.2%
• Services – 52.7%

Key exports: Copper, gold, silver, zinc, petroleum, coffee, avocados, and textilesMain partners: China (34%), United States (14%), Switzerland, Canada, Japan
Trade (2024):

• Exports – $83.3 billion
• Imports – $67.2 billion
• Foreign reserves – $79 billion

Peru is the world’s second-largest copper producer and among the top producers of silver and gold. Despite strong macroeconomic fundamentals, challenges include high informal employment, income disparity, and environmental impacts from resource extraction.

Infrastructure, Communications, and Energy

• Electricity access: 96% nationwide
• Energy sources: Hydropower (49%), natural gas (40%), renewables (11%)
• Oil reserves: 858 million barrels
• Natural gas reserves: 300 billion cubic metres

Transport:

• Airports: 174 (Jorge Chávez International Airport, Lima, is the primary hub)
• Major ports: Callao, Matarani, Iquitos
• Road and rail infrastructure: expanding but limited in the Andes and Amazon

Digital connectivity:

• Internet users – 80%
• Mobile penetration – 120%
• Media – free and diverse, protected by constitutional provisions on expression

Defence and Security

• Forces: Army, Navy, Air Force, and National Police
• Personnel: ~85,000 active military; ~75,000 police
• Defence budget: 0.8% of GDP
• Primary missions: Border control, counter-narcotics, counterterrorism, and disaster relief

The Shining Path remains active in the Apurímac, Ene, and Mantaro river valleys (VRAEM), operating as a narco-terrorist group. Peru participates in UN peacekeeping missions and maintains close defence ties with the United States, Brazil, Spain, China, and Russia.

Culture and Heritage

Peru’s cultural identity merges Indigenous, Spanish, African, and Asian elements. Its archaeological legacy—from Machu Picchu to Chan Chan and the Nazca Lines—makes it one of the most heritage-rich nations in Latin America.