Peacekeeping

Peacekeeping refers to a spectrum of activities—primarily military but also civilian and police operations—intended to create and maintain conditions conducive to lasting peace. At its core, peacekeeping aims to prevent further conflict, reduce casualties and support the implementation of peace agreements in post-war environments. Research across political science and international relations consistently finds that peacekeeping reduces both the likelihood of renewed warfare and the level of violence in fragile post-conflict situations.
Within the United Nations framework, peacekeepers are widely recognised by their distinct blue helmets or berets, symbolising neutrality and the international community’s commitment to peace. UN peacekeeping operations may involve soldiers, police officers and civilian experts. However, the UN is not the only organisation to deploy peacekeeping forces: NATO, the European Union, the African Union and ad hoc multinational coalitions also undertake peacekeeping duties, often with UN authorisation.
Peacekeepers, under international law, are considered non-combatants. Their neutrality obliges warring parties to protect them from attack and enables them to operate impartially. Yet their role may include tasks ranging from military observation to supporting elections, promoting the rule of law and contributing to long-term economic and social reconstruction.

Types of Peacekeeping Operations

Peacekeeping missions differ widely in mandate, structure and the level of force they are authorised to use. Page Fortna’s classification identifies four principal types of mission, shaped strongly by the distinction between the United Nations Charter’s Chapter VI and Chapter VII provisions.
Chapter VI: Consent-Based Missions
These operations require the consent of the belligerent parties and cannot continue without it.

• Observation Missions: Small, typically unarmed groups tasked with monitoring ceasefires, troop withdrawals or compliance with agreements. Examples include the UN Angola Verification Mission II and the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara.
• Interpositional (Traditional) Missions: Lightly armed troops positioned between former combatants to serve as a buffer zone, supervise ceasefire terms and reduce the chance of accidental escalation. Examples include the UN Angola Verification Mission III and MINUGUA in Guatemala.
• Multidimensional Missions: These extend beyond observation and buffering to include tasks such as electoral assistance, security-sector reform, institution building and economic development. They reflect a comprehensive approach to post-conflict stabilisation, as seen in ONUSAL (El Salvador), UNTAG (Namibia) and UN Operation in Mozambique.

Chapter VII: Peace Enforcement Missions
These operations do not require the consent of belligerents and may use force beyond self-defence to enforce Security Council mandates. They involve robust military contingents and complex civilian components. Examples include the UN Mission in Sierra Leone, the ECOWAS Monitoring Group and NATO missions in Bosnia and Herzegovina (IFOR and SFOR).

Cold War and Post–Cold War Evolution

During the Cold War, peacekeeping was generally limited to traditional interpositional activities deployed after interstate conflicts. Missions such as the UN Truce Supervision Organization or the UN Emergency Force acted mainly as buffers, operating with the consent of the involved states and often using unarmed observers.
The end of the Cold War ushered in a dramatic shift in peacekeeping practice. Civil wars, state collapse and intrastate violence required more dynamic and multidimensional responses. In 1992, UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali’s An Agenda for Peace articulated a broader vision for the UN’s role, outlining interconnected pillars:

• Preventative diplomacy: Measures such as fact-finding missions and observer deployments to avert violence before it begins.
• Peacemaking: Mediation and negotiation under Chapter VI to bring warring parties toward settlement.
• Peacekeeping: Lightly armed deployments to monitor agreements and build confidence.
• Peace enforcement: Robust action under Chapter VII to compel compliance when necessary.
• Post-conflict reconstruction: Building political, social and economic institutions capable of sustaining peace.

This framework guided the expansion of UN responsibilities in post-conflict governance, including electoral assistance, judicial reform and security-sector restructuring.

Protecting Cultural Heritage

Modern peacekeeping increasingly incorporates the protection of cultural property as part of stabilisation efforts. Since 2012, the UN has developed partnerships—such as with Blue Shield International—to safeguard cultural heritage at risk during conflicts. The joint UNIFIL–Blue Shield mission in Lebanon in 2019 exemplified this approach, focusing on protecting UNESCO World Heritage sites.
Protection of cultural assets supports post-conflict reconstruction by preserving local identity. Destroying cultural heritage can erode community cohesion and contribute to displacement, as noted by Karl von Habsburg. Safeguarding cultural assets thus forms part of a broader strategy to promote long-term stability, economic recovery and social resilience.

Non-UN Peacekeeping Forces

Some peacekeeping missions are conducted outside the UN command structure, though often with Security Council authorization. Examples include:

• KFOR in Kosovo, under NATO leadership.
• The Multinational Force and Observers in the Sinai Peninsula.
• EUFOR RCA, operated by the European Union.
• The African Union Mission in Sudan, prior to its integration with UN operations.