Palmnut Vulture

The palmnut vulture (Gypohierax angolensis), also known as the vulturine fish eagle, is a distinctive bird of prey belonging to the family Accipitridae, which also includes eagles, hawks, kites, buzzards, harriers, and Old World vultures. It is the sole living member of the genus Gypohierax and represents a highly unusual ecological adaptation within raptors. Although classified as an Old World vulture, it is only distantly related to the New World vultures of the family Cathartidae. The species is widespread across sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in habitats associated with palm trees, and is notable for its predominantly frugivorous diet.
The palmnut vulture is often tolerant of human presence and may be observed near settlements, coastal resorts, and even hotel grounds in parts of West Africa, such as The Gambia.

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The palmnut vulture was first scientifically described in 1788 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised edition of Systema Naturae. He originally placed the species in the genus Falco, naming it Falco angolensis, based on earlier descriptions by the English ornithologist John Latham, who had examined specimens collected in Angola.
In 1836, the species was reassigned to its own genus, Gypohierax, by the German naturalist Eduard Rüppell. The generic name combines the Ancient Greek gyps (vulture) and hierax (hawk), reflecting its intermediate characteristics between vultures and eagles. The species is monotypic, with no recognised subspecies.

Physical Description

The palmnut vulture is the smallest of the Old World vultures. Adults typically weigh between 1.3 and 1.7 kilograms, measure approximately 60 centimetres in length, and have a wingspan of about 150 centimetres. The adult plumage is striking and nearly unmistakable: the body is predominantly white, with contrasting black flight feathers and tail. A conspicuous patch of bare red skin surrounds each eye, adding to its distinctive appearance.
In flight, the palmnut vulture resembles an eagle more than a typical vulture, as it is capable of sustained flapping flight and does not rely exclusively on thermal soaring. This silhouette can cause confusion with the African fish eagle or the Egyptian vulture, though it lacks the chestnut body of the former and the white tail of the latter.
Sexes are alike in appearance, with females being similar in size to males. Juveniles differ markedly, displaying predominantly brown plumage with darker wings and yellowish facial skin. The transition to full adult plumage is slow, taking approximately three to four years.

Distribution and Habitat

The palmnut vulture is found along much of the African coastline from The Gambia in West Africa eastward to Kenya, and southward to Mozambique and South Africa. Its distribution closely follows that of oil palms (Elaeis guineensis) and raffia palms (Raphia spp.), which are central to its feeding ecology.
The species is most commonly associated with coastal forests, mangrove swamps, and riverine habitats, generally at low elevations, but it also occurs in wet savannas and forest–savanna mosaics. In South Africa, the species has a highly localised distribution, with breeding populations confined primarily to areas where raffia palms are present, including sites where these palms have been artificially planted.
The total African population is estimated at approximately 80,000 breeding pairs, though only around 40 individuals occur in South Africa, making it one of the country’s rarest vultures.

Behaviour and Ecology

Feeding Ecology

The palmnut vulture is highly unusual among birds of prey due to its predominantly plant-based diet. The fleshy fruit husks of oil palms and raffia palms constitute over 60% of the adult diet and more than 90% of the juvenile diet. It also consumes fruits from date palms, oranges, other fruits, grains, and acacia seeds.
Despite this strong frugivorous tendency, the species remains opportunistic and supplements its diet with animal matter. Recorded prey items include freshwater and marine crabs, molluscs, frogs, tadpoles, fish, insects such as dung beetles, termites, and locusts, as well as small mammals, birds, reptiles, eggs, and hatchlings. It may occasionally prey on domestic chickens and will also scavenge carrion.

Breeding Behaviour

Palmnut vultures form long-term pair bonds and show strong fidelity to nesting sites, often remaining in the nesting area year-round. Nests are large structures made of sticks and are typically built high in tall trees. In regions where raffia palms occur, nests are frequently placed at the base of the palm fronds.
At the onset of the breeding season, pairs engage in conspicuous aerial displays involving soaring, rolling, and diving manoeuvres that are more acrobatic than those of most vulture species. Each breeding cycle usually involves the laying of a single egg, white with brown markings. Both parents share incubation duties over a period of four to six weeks. The chick fledges approximately 85 to 90 days after hatching.

Conservation Status

The palmnut vulture is currently classified as Least Concern, reflecting its wide distribution and overall stable population across much of sub-Saharan Africa. However, its status varies regionally. In South Africa, the species is rare and highly localised, though its population is slowly increasing.
The principal threats to the palmnut vulture are habitat loss and degradation, particularly the clearing of coastal forests and wetlands for urban expansion, mining, and agriculture. In Mozambique, deforestation of coastal forests has been identified as a threat to breeding habitat. Conversely, the ornamental cultivation of raffia palms in parts of South Africa has unintentionally benefited the species by providing additional feeding and nesting sites.
Large portions of its South African habitat fall within protected areas, notably the iSimangaliso Wetland Park. The species is notable for being the only vulture in South Africa with a demonstrably increasing population, and the maintenance of this small southern population is considered important for the stability of the wider regional metapopulation.