October Revolution

The October Revolution, also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution, the Bolshevik Revolution, or in some early sources the October Coup, was the second major phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917. Led by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik Party, it unfolded primarily in Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) and resulted in the overthrow of the Russian Provisional Government, the end of the period of dual power, and the establishment of a Bolshevik-led government. The Revolution acted as the catalyst for the Russian Civil War, which ultimately produced the Soviet Union.

Background

The Revolution occurred against the backdrop of the February Revolution, which had forced the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and installed the Provisional Government. This new administration, headed initially by Prince Georgy Lvov and later by Alexander Kerensky, faced deep political fractures, worsening economic conditions and widespread public disillusionment. Russia remained engaged in the First World War, a decision that strained resources, fuelled inflation and caused further suffering among workers and peasants.
By 1917 industrial production had collapsed to roughly 36% of its pre-war levels, with up to 50% of factories in regions such as the Urals and the Donbas ceasing operations. Living costs rose sharply and real wages fell to half of their pre-war value. The national debt exceeded 50 billion roubles, including substantial foreign liabilities, leaving the government close to financial ruin.
Political authority was further eroded by the system of dual power, in which the Provisional Government shared unstable and often contested authority with the Petrograd Soviet and other workers’ and soldiers’ councils. During the summer of 1917, unrest intensified, culminating in the July Days, in which protests and armed demonstrations were violently suppressed. Workers, soldiers and peasants increasingly questioned the government’s legitimacy and its ability to address wartime hardships.

Social Unrest Among Workers, Peasants and Soldiers

Throughout 1917, factories across Russia saw strikes, demonstrations and direct confrontations. Factory committees emerged as influential bodies representing workers’ interests, demanding improvements in pay, working conditions and control over production. More than one million workers participated in major strikes during September and October, reflecting the extent of discontent.
In the countryside, peasant uprisings spread rapidly. By October 1917, over three-quarters of counties had experienced some form of revolt, ranging from grain withholding to full-scale seizures of landed estates. Punitive expeditions dispatched by the authorities often inflamed tensions further. Soldiers’ families, especially wives dependent on inconsistent government allowances, played a significant role in protests, including subsistence riots in which food was seized from local shops suspected of price exploitation.
Simultaneously, soldiers at the front and in major garrisons expressed growing refusal to obey Provisional Government orders. In September, key military units and sailors of the Baltic Fleet declared through their representative body, Tsentrobalt, that they would no longer recognise the government.

Lenin’s Return and the Shift Towards Insurrection

In April 1917, Lenin returned to Petrograd via Germany after negotiations that allowed exiled Bolsheviks to travel through German territory. Immediately upon arrival he issued the April Theses, calling for the overthrow of the Provisional Government, the end of Russia’s involvement in the war and the transfer of power to the soviets.
By the autumn, political tensions rose sharply as the left wing of the Socialist Revolutionary Party dominated the government. The Bolsheviks capitalised on widespread frustration, with slogans such as “Peace, Land, Bread” resonating strongly among soldiers, workers and peasants. On 10 (23) October, the Petrograd Soviet, under the leadership of Leon Trotsky, voted to support preparations for an armed uprising.

The October Uprising

On 24 (6 November) October, the Provisional Government attempted to forestall the revolution by closing Bolshevik newspapers and restricting movement in Petrograd. Small skirmishes broke out, but the situation escalated rapidly. The following day, Bolshevik-aligned sailors and tens of thousands of soldiers rose in support of the insurrection. Units of the Red Guards, under the Military Revolutionary Committee, seized key infrastructure including railway stations, telegraph offices and government ministries.
In the early hours of 26 (8 November) October, Bolshevik forces captured the Winter Palace, the seat of the Provisional Government. The ministers were arrested with minimal resistance and no significant casualties, marking the end of the Provisional Government.
At the same time, the Second All-Russian Congress of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies declared itself the supreme governing authority. With power consolidated in Bolshevik hands, rival political groups rejected the legitimacy of the seizure of power, and the country quickly descended into the Russian Civil War, which continued until 1922.

Outcomes and Significance

The Revolution had profound consequences:

• End of dual power and dissolution of the Provisional Government.
• Establishment of a Bolshevik-led government, later institutionalised as the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.
• The beginning of the Russian Civil War, involving Red, White and foreign interventionist forces.
• The formation of the Soviet Union in 1922.

The ideological triumph of the Bolsheviks embedded the October Revolution at the heart of Soviet identity. It inspired communist movements worldwide, shaped twentieth-century geopolitics and became a major state holiday in the USSR.

Etymology and Historiography

Although it occurred in November according to the Gregorian calendar, the event is known as the October Revolution because Russia used the Julian calendar in 1917. Contemporary documents often referred to it as the October Uprising or October Coup. Historiographical interpretations vary widely: Soviet scholarship portrayed it as a legitimate workers’ revolution fulfilling Marxist principles, while many Western historians have emphasised its conspiratorial or coup-like nature. The Revolution remains a subject of global historical interest, symbolising both radical political transformation and the turbulent origins of the Soviet state.