Nationalism

Nationalism is a political, social and cultural movement grounded in the idea that the boundaries of the nation should align with those of the state. It promotes the belief that each nation forms the natural and legitimate basis for political authority and that the nation should exercise sovereignty over its homeland without external interference. As such, nationalism has profoundly shaped the formation of modern states, political identities, and cultural movements.

Core Ideas and Characteristics

Nationalism asserts that the nation is the sole rightful source of political power. It encourages the pursuit of self-determination, holding that a nation should govern itself and maintain autonomy in its internal affairs. As a movement, it seeks to promote the interests of a particular nation, often expressed through campaigns for independence, unity or cultural revival.
The creation of a cohesive national identity lies at the heart of nationalist ideology. This identity may be formed from shared cultural or social traits, such as language, ethnicity, religion, history, political traditions or geographic association. Such attributes are woven into narratives of collective belonging, helping to foster national solidarity.
Different definitions of “nation” lead to different strands of nationalism:

• Ethnic nationalism, built upon shared ancestry, culture and historical memory.
• Civic nationalism, based on shared political values, citizenship and participation in common institutions.

These distinctions highlight nationalism’s flexibility as both a cultural sentiment and a political doctrine.

The Emergence of Nationalism: Major Theoretical Approaches

Various theories seek to explain why nationalism arose in the modern era.
Primordialism, associated with early Romantic thought, claimed that nations were ancient and natural communities. Modern scholarship largely rejects this view, arguing that nations are not timeless phenomena.
Perennialism adopts a more moderate stance, accepting the modernity of nations while recognising long-standing cultural and historical roots. Its validity remains debated.
Modernisation theory is the most widely accepted explanation for nationalism’s rise. It attributes the emergence of national consciousness to processes such as industrialisation, mass education, improved communication networks and urbanisation. These developments enabled people to imagine themselves as members of a wider national community. Nations, in this view, are constructed through shared practices, institutions and symbols, often described as invented traditions.
This interpretation is closely associated with the idea of imagined communities, in which members share a sense of belonging despite never meeting most of their compatriots.
Ethnosymbolism, championed by scholars such as Anthony D. Smith, emphasises the role of collective memories, myths, symbols and cultural traditions. It argues that modern nationalism draws upon a deeper reservoir of cultural meaning, shaping how communities understand their origins and aspirations.
Debates continue over the moral meaning of nationalism, including its relationship to patriotism, cosmopolitanism and political obligation.

Nationalism Across the Political Spectrum

Nationalism is ideologically versatile. It can be embedded within conservative, liberal, populist or socialist projects. For example, right-wing nationalism often stresses cultural preservation, while left-wing nationalism may link national identity to social justice or anti-imperialism.
Consequently, nationalism can manifest in both constructive and destructive forms. It has inspired movements for independence, equality and cultural revival, and has encouraged pride in collective achievements. Yet nationalism has also been used to justify discrimination, suppress minorities and fuel conflicts. Its role in fomenting hostility between states has frequently been linked to the origins of both the First and Second World Wars.

Evolution of Terminology and Intellectual Foundations

Key concepts associated with nationalism—nation, sovereignty and political identity—were refined during the early modern period. The writings of Hugo Grotius in the early seventeenth century helped clarify ideas of statehood, law and international relations.
Before the nineteenth century, the term “nation” referred broadly to communities sharing common customs, language, laws or religious practices. The modern term “nationalism” emerged in English around the late eighteenth century and gained momentum throughout the nineteenth century. Following the First World War, the term increasingly acquired negative associations due to the destructive outcomes of extreme nationalist politics.
Many academics define nationalism as the principle that state boundaries should coincide with the boundaries of the national community. According to this perspective, nationalism assumes that the people and the state form a congruent political unit.

Intellectual Origins of Nationalism

The Age of Revolution provided fertile ground for the development of nationalist ideas, as traditional religious and political authorities faced widespread critique. Intellectuals sought new foundations for political legitimacy, contributing to movements of both cultural and political nationalism.
Ideas of historicism, emphasising the organic growth and decline of peoples and cultures, became influential. This approach encouraged the belief that each nation possessed a unique historical trajectory deserving political expression.
Johann Gottfried Herder played a pivotal role in shaping early nationalist thought. He argued that language forms the bedrock of national identity and political authority. Herder’s emphasis on cultural unity and patriotism influenced later nationalist movements and encouraged efforts to cultivate shared linguistic and cultural standards within fragmented political entities.

The Historical Formation of Nationalism

Most scholars agree that nationalism became firmly established during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Key events included:

• The United States Declaration of Independence, promoting popular sovereignty.
• The French Revolution, which proclaimed the nation as the centre of political authority and inspired nationalist movements across Europe.

These developments significantly influenced German, Italian and other European intellectuals, providing models for mobilising populations around nation-based political projects.
Earlier constitutionalist movements, such as the Corsican Republic and the American Revolution, also provided precedents for linking political legitimacy to popular consent rather than dynastic rule.
Debates persist regarding the existence of nationalism in the Middle Ages or antiquity. Nevertheless, by the nineteenth century nationalism had become a defining force in global politics, shaping state formation, cultural identity and political participation.

Nationalism in the Context of Industrial and Social Change

The Industrial Revolution played a crucial role in strengthening national consciousness. It created more integrated national economies and expanded nationwide communication through improved transport and mass media. These developments encouraged people to engage politically on a national scale, extending beyond local ties.
By the mid-eighteenth century, patriotic nationalism was already taking root in Britain, supported by government initiatives and promoted through literature, art and political discourse. National symbols, anthems, myths and flags contributed to a shared sense of belonging. The adoption of the Union Jack in 1801 is a clear example of how visual symbols were used to strengthen national unity.
Nationalism thus evolved into a multifaceted ideology shaped by cultural, political and economic transformations. Its impact on modern history remains profound, influencing debates over statehood, sovereignty, identity and global integration.