Nagarjuna

Nāgārjuna is regarded as one of the most influential philosophers in the history of Buddhism and a seminal figure within the development of Mahāyāna thought. Associated primarily with the Madhyamaka, or “Middle Way”, his writings offer some of the earliest and most sophisticated expositions of the doctrine of śūnyatā, or emptiness, which became a cornerstone of Mahāyāna philosophy. Although the details of his life remain uncertain, the intellectual legacy attributed to Nāgārjuna shaped Buddhist scholasticism across India and later influenced traditions in Tibet, East Asia, and Central Asia.

Background and Historical Context

India during the first and second centuries CE was marked by cultural diversity and political fragmentation. The region was divided into a mixture of small kingdoms and expansive empires, including the Kushan Empire in the north-west and the Sātavāhana dynasty in the Deccan. This period also witnessed significant developments within the Buddhist saṅgha, which had already divided into multiple schools and sub-traditions.
By this time, the Mahāyāna movement was emerging as an initially small and relatively unrecognised current within wider Buddhist practice. Early Mahāyāna sūtras—such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā—were circulating among limited circles of monks and lay followers. These texts emphasised the perfection of wisdom (prajñā), the bodhisattva ideal, and a deeper philosophical articulation of emptiness. Although Mahāyāna adherents were initially a minority, their ideas gradually gained prominence through influential thinkers such as Nāgārjuna.

Life and Biographical Traditions

The historical Nāgārjuna is difficult to establish with certainty. Modern scholarship generally places him between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE, yet precise dates and locations remain debated. Surviving biographical information derives mainly from Chinese and Tibetan sources compiled centuries after his death, and much of this material blends historical memory with religious hagiography.
Many scholars propose that Nāgārjuna may have lived in the Deccan region and served as an adviser to a king of the Sātavāhana dynasty, possibly Yajña Śrī Sātakarṇi. This association has led to a conventional dating of roughly 150–250 CE. Other theories link Nāgārjuna to monastic centres in Andhra Pradesh, particularly around Dhānyakaṭaka (modern Amarāvatī), a region known for the presence of Mahāsāṃghika sub-schools such as the Pūrvaśailas, Aparaśailas, and Caitikas. These schools are thought to have provided an environment in which early Mahāyāna philosophy could be developed and articulated.
Traditional biographies trace Nāgārjuna’s origins to a Brahmin family, noting that he later embraced Buddhism. Various accounts place him in Vidarbha, South Kosala, or Amarāvatī, reflecting the diversity of regional traditions. Hagiographical narratives also describe dramatic events, including the claim that Nāgārjuna retrieved Mahāyāna sūtras from the realm of the nāgas, serpent-like beings noted for their wisdom and protective qualities.

Traditional Hagiography and Mythic Elements

Religious biographies portray Nāgārjuna as a figure possessing extraordinary abilities. These accounts commonly present him as a master of Ayurveda, alchemy (rasāyana), and esoteric practices. Stories describe him creating elixirs, turning rocks into gold, or employing magical powers. In Buddhist art and mythology he frequently appears in a composite human-nāga form, symbolising his connection with serpent deities believed to guard sacred knowledge.
Some Tibetan traditions situate him at Nālandā University, although historical evidence suggests that Nālandā only rose to prominence after the period in which Nāgārjuna likely lived. Other legends claim that he spent his later years on Śrīparvata, a mountain near the site later known as Nagarjunakoṇḍa in Andhra Pradesh. While archaeological work has confirmed extensive monastic activity in this region, no direct evidence links Nāgārjuna himself to these remains.
These narratives demonstrate the rich cultural reception of Nāgārjuna across Buddhist communities, where historical memory and symbolic significance often merge. They also show the extent to which his figure became central to the preservation and interpretation of Mahāyāna doctrine.

Multiple Authors and Textual Attribution

A large number of texts are attributed to Nāgārjuna, but not all belong to a single historical author. The popularity of his name, combined with the prestige of his philosophical contributions, led several later writers to adopt or be associated with it. Scholars therefore differentiate between the early Madhyamaka philosopher and later figures such as:

• an Ayurvedic author credited with treatises on rasāyana,
• a Tantric Buddhist scholar linked to later Vajrayāna literature,
• and a Jain figure of the same name, whose stories may have influenced Buddhist narrative traditions.

The abundance of pseudepigraphic material reflects the major doctrinal authority attributed to Nāgārjuna across Buddhist intellectual history.

Philosophical Contributions and Teachings

Nāgārjuna’s central contribution lies in the formulation of the Madhyamaka system, which offers a rigorous interpretation of the Buddha’s “middle way” between metaphysical extremes. His philosophy emphasises:

• the emptiness (śūnyatā) of all phenomena,
• the rejection of intrinsic existence or svabhāva,
• and the view that concepts and categories are constructs of dependent origination.

Rather than asserting non-existence, Madhyamaka analysis argues that things arise only through relational processes. This insight is presented as the key to understanding the nature of experience, avoiding dogmatic views, and advancing along the bodhisattva path.

Major Works

Among the writings attributed to Nāgārjuna, several have had profound influence on Buddhist thought.
Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Root Verses on the Middle Way)This text is considered his foundational work and one of the most important philosophical treatises in the Buddhist canon. Its verses examine core doctrinal categories—including causation, motion, perception, the aggregates, and nirvāṇa—demonstrating that all phenomena lack intrinsic essence. The treatise also draws on early Buddhist discourses, engaging critically with earlier doctrinal formulations.
Yuktiṣaṣṭika (Sixty Verses of Reasoning)A concise exposition of analytical methods used to reveal the conditional nature of existence.
Śūnyatāsaptati (Seventy Verses on Emptiness)A sustained argument elaborating the philosophical meaning of emptiness and its implications for liberation.
Vigrahavyāvartanī (The End of Disputes)A work addressing objections from rival philosophical schools and clarifying Madhyamaka reasoning.
Vaidalyaprakaraṇa (Pulverising the Categories)A critical examination of formal categories used by other Indian philosophical traditions.
Ratnāvalī (Precious Garland)A verse treatise offering guidance on ethical, political, and spiritual topics, often thought to have been written for a royal patron.
Other attributed works include the Sūtrasamuccaya and the Stuti (Hymns), though authorship remains debated.
These texts, individually and collectively, shaped the doctrinal foundation of Madhyamaka and influenced later exegetical traditions in India, China, Tibet, Korea, and Japan.

Influence and Legacy

Nāgārjuna’s ideas became the basis for extensive commentarial traditions in multiple languages, contributing to the spread of Mahāyāna philosophy across Asia. His logical methods and dialectical approach were later expanded by thinkers such as Āryadeva and Candrakīrti, and incorporated into monastic curricula in regions including Tibet and China.
Beyond Buddhism, Nāgārjuna’s analysis of conceptual construction, identity, and relationality has attracted attention from modern philosophers, comparative theologians, and scholars of logic. His insistence on avoiding metaphysical extremes continues to influence contemporary interpretations of Buddhist thought.