Mohenjodaro

Mohenjodaro is one of the most significant archaeological sites of the ancient world, located in the Larkana District of Sindh, Pakistan. Built around 2500 BCE, it was among the largest and most sophisticated urban centres of the Indus Valley Civilisation, contemporaneous with ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Minoan civilisation and the Caral–Supe civilisation of Peru. With an estimated population that may have reached 40,000, the city prospered for several centuries until its abandonment around 1700 BCE. Rediscovered in the 1920s, Mohenjodaro has since become a major focus of archaeological investigation and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. Today, the site faces challenges posed by erosion and inadequate restoration practices.

Etymology

The ancient name of Mohenjodaro remains unknown. Some scholars, including Iravatham Mahadevan, have speculated that a seal impression may indicate a name resembling Kukkurma, possibly meaning “the city of the cockerel”, hinting at the ritual or symbolic significance of cockfighting within the region’s cultural practices. The modern name Mohenjodaro, derived from the Sindhi language, is commonly translated as “Mound of the Dead”, an interpretation based on the large mound structure under which the ancient city lay buried.
There is also speculation regarding the city’s possible role in the early diffusion of domesticated chickens across several continents, suggesting long-distance interactions or shared agricultural developments in prehistory. Although such hypotheses remain debated, they highlight the potential cultural and economic influence of the settlement within a wider ancient context.

Location

The archaeological remains of Mohenjodaro lie on the right (western) bank of the lower Indus River, below its junction with the Panjnad River where the five rivers of the Punjab merge. The city was constructed on a natural Pleistocene ridge within the expansive floodplain, providing some protection from seasonal inundations. It is situated near the modern town of Larkana, making it one of the most accessible and well-known sites of the Harappan world.

Historical Context

Mohenjodaro emerged as a major urban centre in the 26th century BCE during the mature phase of the Indus Valley Civilisation, also known as the Harappan Civilisation. The civilisation developed from earlier prehistoric cultures which had occupied the region since at least 3000 BCE. At its zenith, the Indus Valley Civilisation encompassed much of present-day Pakistan and northern India, extending westward toward Iran, south toward Gujarat, and north into Bactria. Major sites included Harappa, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi.
Mohenjodaro stood out for its highly advanced civil engineering, urban planning, and social organisation. The city’s systematic layout, robust public infrastructure and extensive drainage network make it one of the earliest known examples of planned urban design. With the decline of the civilisation around 1900 BCE, likely linked to environmental shifts, changing river courses or economic disruption, Mohenjodaro was eventually abandoned.

Rediscovery and Excavation

For nearly four millennia the city remained buried and unrecognised. In 1919–20, R. D. Banerji of the Archaeological Survey of India identified the site’s significance after locating a flint artefact and associating the mound with ancient cultural debris rather than solely the later Buddhist structures visible on the surface. This discovery led to major excavations directed by K. N. Dikshit in 1924–25 and John Marshall in 1925–26, whose work first revealed the scale and sophistication of the city.
Further excavations in the 1930s under Marshall, D. K. Dikshitar and Ernest J. H. Mackay uncovered many of the prominent structures now associated with Mohenjodaro. Later investigations were carried out by Mortimer Wheeler in 1945 and by George F. Dales in the mid-1960s. Excavation activities were subsequently restricted due to concerns about the deterioration of exposed structures. Since then, research has relied largely on surface surveys, architectural documentation and limited probing, including international surveys in the 1980s and a 2015 core-drilling project which suggested that the buried extent of the city is larger than previously mapped.

Architecture and Urban Infrastructure

Mohenjodaro is renowned for its meticulously planned layout, characteristic of Indus urban design. Buildings followed a rectilinear plan arranged along a grid of streets, with most structures built from standardised fired bricks bonded with mortar. Sun-dried mudbrick and wooden elements were also employed. Estimates of the city’s size vary from around 85 to 300 hectares, reflecting uncertainty over how much of the total area was residential.
The settlement is traditionally interpreted as comprising two main sectors: the Citadel, a raised mound built of mudbrick, and the Lower City, where most residential and commercial activity occurred. The Citadel contained public complexes including large halls, bathing facilities and possibly administrative buildings. The Lower City displayed a high degree of uniformity in house construction, street planning and drainage.
The city’s drainage system is one of its most celebrated features. Wastewater from houses was channelled into covered street drains, which were periodically cleaned and repaired. Many houses included private bathing rooms with brick floors and sloped channels, indicating a strong emphasis on hygiene and domestic convenience.

Major Buildings

A number of prominent structures have been uncovered:

• The so-called Great Granary: Initially interpreted by Mortimer Wheeler as a large storage facility for grain, though later scholars have questioned this due to a lack of direct evidence. Some now describe it as a Great Hall of uncertain function.
• The Great Bath: Perhaps the most iconic structure at Mohenjodaro, this large brick-lined pool—accessed from a colonnaded courtyard and sealed with bitumen—likely held ritual significance. Its dimensions and construction reflect significant engineering capability.
• Assembly and administrative halls: Including a Pillared Hall and the so-called College Hall, consisting of numerous rooms that may have served priestly or administrative functions.

Residential buildings were often multi-storied and organised around internal courtyards. Many homes had their own wells, reflecting the importance of easy access to clean water.

Fortifications, Water Supply and Wells

Although Mohenjodaro lacked a continuous city wall, it possessed defensive features such as guard towers and substantial fortifications on its southern and western edges. These structures, combined with the raised Citadel mound, may have served both defensive and flood-control purposes.
More than 700 wells have been documented at the site, an indication of the city’s remarkable water management system. As ground levels rose over centuries due to rebuilding and sedimentation, brick courses were added to existing wells so that their rims remained at street height. The abundance of wells suggests not only a stable water supply but also a decentralised approach to resource access.
Flooding was a recurring challenge. The construction of large platforms—requiring an estimated four million person-days of labour—indicates a powerful central authority capable of mobilising resources to protect the settlement from inundation. These platforms served to elevate key areas of the city and may reflect an ongoing cycle of destruction and rebuilding.