Misogyny

Misogyny refers to contempt for, prejudice against, or hatred of women and girls. As a foundational element of patriarchal social structures, it functions to maintain women in subordinate positions relative to men. Manifestations of misogyny appear throughout human history and across civilisations, reflected in religion, philosophy, art, law, and cultural practices. It may take violent forms, such as domestic abuse, femicide, and misogynist terrorism, or more subtle expressions, including harassment, coercion, and restrictions on women’s social, political, or economic participation.

Definitions and Conceptual Development

The English term misogyny was coined in the mid-17th century, derived from Greek roots meaning “hatred” and “woman”. Although first recorded centuries earlier in Greek as misogunia, the English adoption of the term gained prominence only with second-wave feminism during the 1970s. Dictionaries commonly define misogyny as hatred or deep dislike of women, with some noting an extension to entrenched prejudice.
Contemporary scholarship distinguishes misogyny from sexism. While sexism rationalises and justifies hierarchical gender roles, misogyny operates as the enforcement mechanism of patriarchy. It rewards women who conform to expected roles and punishes those who challenge male authority. This distinction allows for situations in which individuals expressing misogynistic behaviours may not necessarily harbour hatred towards women personally but seek to maintain gendered dominance.
In social psychology, open expressions of misogyny correspond to hostile sexism, which provokes resistance among women. Benevolent sexism—paternalistic attitudes, chivalry, and idealisation of women as dependent or pure—appears more benign yet reinforces traditional roles and supports patriarchal structures. Misogyny may also be directed at femininity itself, a dynamic described as femmephobia, which targets individuals of any gender who exhibit culturally coded feminine traits.
The concept intersects with other forms of oppression, including racism. Expressions such as misogynoir denote the fusion of misogyny and anti-Black racism, while transmisogyny and transmisogynoir identify systems targeting trans women, particularly those who are Black or transfeminine.

Origins and Anthropological Perspectives

Misogyny is closely linked to the development of patriarchal systems, with many scholars tracing its emergence to the Bronze Age, when early state structures began to institutionalise gendered hierarchies. In the ancient Near East and the Mediterranean world, patriarchal religious and legal codes established frameworks that subordinated women economically, socially, and politically.
The three major monotheistic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—institutionalised patriarchal norms across their historical societies. However, misogynistic beliefs and customs were also prevalent in polytheistic and non-state cultures. Anthropological research suggests that nearly all known human societies display evidence of misogynistic attitudes or practices.
One interpretation, put forward by anthropologists, situates misogyny in men’s conflicting emotional dependence on and fear of women, particularly regarding reproduction and vulnerability in periods of illness or weakness. These tensions, combined with broader power dynamics, contributed to the evolution of cultural patterns that devalued women and enforced their subordination.
Historical evidence suggests that many ancient societies engaged in practices such as bride kidnapping, which reinforced control over women and shaped enduring social anxieties. This broader context sheds light on misogynistic suspicions recorded in the literary and philosophical traditions of the ancient world.

Misogyny in Classical Antiquity

Classical Greek literature and philosophy provide extensive testimony of misogynistic traditions. Authors such as Hesiod wrote narratives portraying women as sources of misfortune, a theme echoed across various works. Greek texts contain early uses of terms equivalent to misogyny, especially misogunia, which appears in surviving Stoic writings.
In the Stoic tradition, Antipater of Tarsus used the term in a discussion of marriage, contrasting misogyny with the virtues of a dutiful wife. He condemned hatred of women as incompatible with the moral and social order. Chrysippus, another Stoic philosopher, listed misogyny alongside misanthropy and other destructive attitudes, portraying it as a form of emotional disorder that rejected something fundamentally good.
Greek drama also engaged with misogynistic themes. Euripides was noted in antiquity for his nuanced portrayal of women, with some writers defending him against accusations of misogyny by highlighting his positive depictions of female characters. Menander included misogyny as a topic in his plays, reflecting its cultural visibility in Athenian society.
Roman authors and later commentators continued this tradition, and medieval scholars transmitting these works ensured that classical misogynistic motifs persisted into later European literature and intellectual life.

Cultural Manifestations and Social Function

Misogyny functions not only as a personal attitude but also as a social system embedded in laws, customs, religions, and institutional practices. Across history, it has shaped citizenship, property rights, education, and labour division. In many societies, women faced explicit prohibitions that restricted participation in public life, curtailed property ownership, or limited their legal agency.
In cultural representation, misogyny appears in myths depicting women as deceitful, dangerous, or subordinate. These narratives shaped public perceptions and justified gendered hierarchies. Religious texts and commentaries often reinforced such views, associating femininity with temptation, moral weakness, or disorder.
Violence has historically served as a tool for sustaining misogyny. This includes domestic violence, honour-based violence, and the policing of women’s autonomy. In extreme cases, ideological hostility to women manifests as misogynist terrorism or targeted killings.

Modern Interpretations and Contemporary Issues

From the late 20th century onwards, feminist theorists expanded the understanding of misogyny to include structural and symbolic dimensions. Scholars emphasise that misogyny need not involve personal hatred but can operate through social expectations, emotional norms, and systems of punishment and reward. This interpretation explains why individuals may appear affectionate towards specific women while participating in systems that disadvantage women collectively.
Contemporary social movements have highlighted the ways in which misogyny intersects with digital spaces, political discourse, and workplace cultures. Sexual harassment, restrictive reproductive laws, and exclusion from leadership roles remain areas where misogynistic structures are evident.
Although misandry is often described as the opposite of misogyny, researchers argue that it lacks the systemic, institutional, and historical depth that characterises misogyny. The term philogyny, denoting a love of or fondness for women, appears far less frequently in scholarly or public usage.

Historical and Philosophical Legacy

Misogyny’s long-standing cultural presence demonstrates its entrenchment in human social organisation. From ancient philosophical debates to modern political structures, the ideology has persisted through adaptation rather than continuity of a single belief. Whether expressed overtly or subtly, misogyny continues to shape social institutions and collective behaviour.