Marie Curie

Marie Curie, born Maria Salomea Skłodowska on 7 November 1867 in Warsaw, was a Polish-born and naturalised French physicist and chemist whose pioneering research transformed the scientific understanding of radioactivity. Celebrated as the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and the only individual to have been awarded Nobel Prizes in two scientific fields, she remains one of the most influential figures in the history of modern science. Her discoveries of polonium and radium, her advancement of radiological techniques, and her role in the early medical use of radioactive isotopes placed her at the forefront of twentieth-century scientific development.

Early Life and Education

Curie was born into a family of educators in Warsaw during the period when Poland was under Russian rule. She was the youngest of five children of Władysław Skłodowski, a teacher of mathematics and physics, and Bronisława Skłodowska, a school director. Both sides of her family had suffered financial losses due to their involvement in Polish national uprisings, leaving the household in constrained circumstances. Nevertheless, education played a central role in the Skłodowski home. Her father, after laboratory instruction was removed from Polish schools, brought scientific equipment home to teach his children, fostering Maria’s early interest in experimental science.
Curie attended local schools where she excelled academically, graduating from a girls’ gymnasium with a gold medal in 1883. Following a period of ill health, she spent time with relatives before returning to Warsaw. Prevented from attending higher education because of her gender, she joined the clandestine Flying University, a patriotic institution offering secret instruction to Polish students, including women. She tutored to support herself and simultaneously undertook practical scientific training at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture, where she worked in the chemistry laboratory under the guidance of her cousin, Józef Boguski.
Curie also spent time working as a governess in Szczuki, where she experienced a profound but ill-fated relationship with Kazimierz Żorawski, a future mathematician. After years of saving, and with the help of her father, she was finally able to join her sister Bronisława in Paris in 1891 to pursue formal scientific studies.

Studies in Paris and Early Scientific Work

Curie entered the University of Paris (Sorbonne), where she undertook rigorous studies in physics, chemistry, and mathematics. Living frugally and devoting herself almost entirely to academic work, she earned degrees in physics in 1893 and mathematics in 1894. During this period, she met Pierre Curie, already an established physicist known for his work on crystallography and magnetism. Their marriage in 1895 marked the beginning of a profound personal and scientific partnership.
Curie began investigating the recently discovered phenomenon of radiation following Henri Becquerel’s work on uranium salts. Her meticulous experimental approach led her to identify that the emission of rays was not dependent on the molecular arrangement but appeared to be intrinsic to the atoms themselves. This work laid the foundation for the modern concept of radioactivity, a term she introduced.

Discovering Polonium and Radium

In 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie announced their discovery of polonium, named in honour of Marie’s Polish homeland, and later that year, radium, an element distinguished by its intense radioactivity. These discoveries resulted from laborious processing of tonnes of pitchblende ore to isolate minute quantities of the new elements. Marie developed techniques to measure radioactivity and devised methods for isolating radioactive isotopes, innovations that would have far-reaching applications in both science and medicine.
The couple’s groundbreaking research earned them widespread recognition. In 1903, Marie Curie shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel for their contributions to understanding radioactivity. This achievement marked the first time a woman received the Nobel Prize.

Work After Pierre Curie’s Death

In 1906, Pierre Curie died tragically in a street accident in Paris, leaving Marie to continue their scientific legacy. Later that year, she became the first woman appointed as a professor at the University of Paris, where she assumed Pierre’s former chair. Her continued work in isolating radioactive substances led to her receiving the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of polonium and radium. She remained the only person to be awarded Nobel Prizes in two different scientific fields.
Curie supervised the early medical applications of radioactivity, particularly in cancer research. Under her guidance, the first treatments using radioactive isotopes were developed. In 1920, she founded the Curie Institute in Paris, which became a leading centre for radiological and oncological research. A second institute in Warsaw, established in 1932, further expanded her influence in medical science.

Contributions During World War I

During the First World War, Curie recognised the urgent need for X-ray facilities on the battlefield. She helped develop mobile radiography units, later known as “Little Curies”, which brought diagnostic imaging to field hospitals. She trained radiological technicians, including her daughter Irène, and personally participated in frontline work. These efforts significantly improved medical outcomes for wounded soldiers.

Personal Identity and Legacy

Although she became a French citizen and built her career in France, Curie maintained a strong identification with her native Poland. She taught her daughters the Polish language, visited Poland regularly, and chose the name “polonium” to honour her homeland. Her achievements resonated deeply with both French and Polish scientific communities.
Curie died in 1934 at a sanatorium in Passy, France, from aplastic anaemia, a condition likely caused by long-term exposure to radiation during her research and wartime radiological work. Her remains were interred in the Panthéon in 1995, making her the first woman to be honoured there on her own merits.