Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong was a Chinese revolutionary, political leader and theorist who founded the People’s Republic of China in 1949 and dominated its political life until his death in 1976. As Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, he reshaped China through far-reaching political, social and economic campaigns. His interpretation of Marxism–Leninism, later termed Maoism, influenced movements across the global communist sphere. Mao’s life encapsulates the upheavals of twentieth-century China—from the fall of the Qing dynasty and the republican revolutions to civil war, Japanese invasion, socialist transformation and the emergence of China as a major world power.

Early Life and Formative Influences

Mao was born on 26 December 1893 in Shaoshan, Hunan, into a rural household of modest origins. His father, once impoverished, had become a comparatively prosperous farmer, while his mother was devoutly Buddhist and a moderating influence within the family. Educated initially in traditional Confucian texts, Mao developed an early dislike for the moral strictures of classical learning and favoured popular historical novels such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
As a teenager, Mao experienced both political and personal upheaval. At thirteen he was placed in an arranged marriage, which he refused to acknowledge, criticising the practice sharply in later years. He continued to work on the family farm while reading widely, encountering Chinese reformist ideas and translated works of Western thinkers such as Montesquieu, Rousseau, Charles Darwin and Adam Smith. These readings, combined with the social unrest following local famine and protests in Hunan, contributed to his growing political consciousness.
In 1911 Mao was studying in Changsha when the revolutionary uprising known as the Xinhai Revolution began, ultimately toppling the Qing dynasty. Inspired by republican ideals and the writings of Sun Yat-sen, he briefly joined the revolutionary army. After the establishment of the Republic of China, Mao resumed his education, enrolling in several institutions before entering the First Normal School of Hunan, where he was influenced by reformist teachers and the progressive journal New Youth.

Entry into Radical Politics and the Birth of the CCP

Following graduation, Mao travelled to Beijing and worked as an assistant in the university library under Li Dazhao, one of China’s earliest Marxists. Here he was introduced to socialist thought and the global communist movement. The atmosphere of intellectual ferment and student activism during the May Fourth Movement of 1919 further radicalised him.
In 1921 Mao became a founding member of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). He organised labour and student groups in Hunan, strengthened party networks and developed a strong commitment to peasant mobilisation. The fragile alliance between the CCP and the nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) collapsed in 1927, leading to violent suppression of communists. Mao attempted an uprising in Hunan—the Autumn Harvest Uprising—but was forced into retreat.

The Jiangxi Soviet and the Long March

By 1931 Mao had helped to establish the Jiangxi Soviet, a communist base area in south-eastern China. During this period he contributed to the development of guerrilla warfare tactics, rural mobilisation strategies and early land redistribution policies. Internal party struggles and military campaigns by the KMT weakened the Jiangxi base, culminating in the CCP’s strategic withdrawal in 1934–35 known as the Long March.
The Long March proved decisive for Mao’s rise. Amid immense hardship, the retreating forces reorganised in the remote northern province of Shaanxi. Mao emerged as the party’s dominant figure, cementing his authority at major party meetings and reshaping the CCP leadership structure. The Yan’an period that followed became central to the consolidation of Maoist ideology and the creation of a disciplined revolutionary movement.

War Against Japan and Resumption of Civil War

In 1937 the CCP and KMT reached a temporary alliance, forming the Second United Front to resist Japan’s invasion. Mao played a significant strategic and ideological role during the conflict, promoting protracted people’s war and political education. After Japan’s defeat in 1945, the United Front collapsed, and full civil war resumed. The CCP, strengthened by expanded rural support and effective military organisation, defeated the Nationalist government, which retreated to Taiwan in 1949.

Founding of the People’s Republic of China

On 1 October 1949 Mao proclaimed the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). The new state was designed as a one-party socialist system under CCP control. Early campaigns included land redistribution, suppression of perceived counter-revolutionaries and the launch of the first Five-Year Plan. Mao also led China into the Korean War, asserting the PRC’s position in Cold War geopolitics.
In the mid-1950s Mao initiated the Hundred Flowers Campaign, briefly encouraging open criticism before reversing course during the Anti-Rightist Campaign, in which many intellectuals were persecuted.

The Great Leap Forward and Its Consequences

Between 1958 and 1962 Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, an ambitious drive to collectivise agriculture and accelerate industrialisation. The initiative involved the formation of people’s communes and mass steel-making efforts but proved catastrophically unsuccessful. Agricultural disruption, unrealistic production targets and adverse weather contributed to a nationwide famine resulting in millions of deaths. The disaster damaged Mao’s authority within the party, and more pragmatic leaders gained influence.

The Cultural Revolution

In 1966 Mao reasserted his dominance by initiating the Cultural Revolution. Presented as a campaign to purge capitalist and traditional elements from society, it unleashed waves of radical youth activity, persecution of officials, destruction of cultural artefacts and severe social turmoil. The movement centred on Mao’s cult of personality and continued until the early 1970s, leaving deep political and cultural scars.

Foreign Policy and Late Leadership

From the late 1950s China’s relations with the Soviet Union deteriorated sharply, producing the Sino-Soviet split. During the 1970s Mao pursued a dramatic opening towards the United States, culminating in high-level diplomatic exchanges and the gradual normalisation of relations.
By the mid-1970s Mao’s health was declining. He died of a heart attack on 9 September 1976, prompting a state funeral and a political transition. Hua Guofeng initially succeeded him, but by 1978 Deng Xiaoping had become China’s paramount leader, initiating a programme of economic reform and opening that shifted the country’s trajectory.

Legacy and Historical Assessment

Mao’s legacy is highly complex and remains a subject of intense debate. His leadership transformed China from a fragmented semi-colonial state into a unified country with significant geopolitical weight. Improvements in literacy, healthcare, women’s rights and life expectancy occurred during his tenure. At the same time, political campaigns and economic experiments led to widespread suffering, with tens of millions of deaths resulting from famine, persecution, imprisonment and violence.
In 1981 the CCP issued a landmark resolution acknowledging Mao’s contributions while attributing major errors to his later years. Despite the controversies, Mao continues to be regarded within China as a central figure in national history, symbolising liberation from foreign domination and the founding of the PRC. Internationally, his ideas influenced numerous revolutionary movements and left a lasting impact on global communist thought.