Lycians

The Lycians were an ancient group of peoples who inhabited Lycia, a distinctive geopolitical and cultural region in south-western Anatolia, historically known as Asia Minor. Occupying a landscape defined by rugged mountains and a long Mediterranean coastline, Lycia developed a complex identity shaped by indigenous Anatolian traditions, Aegean influences, and later Greek cultural dominance. The term Lycians does not denote a single homogeneous population but rather a sequence of peoples who occupied the region at different times and contributed to its evolving political, linguistic, and cultural character.

Geographical and Historical Context

Lycia was located along the southern coast of Anatolia, bordered by Caria to the west, Pamphylia to the east, and the Taurus Mountains to the north. Its geography encouraged maritime connections while simultaneously isolating inland communities, fostering both external interaction and local continuity. Ancient Greek and Roman sources consistently treated Lycia as a distinct region with its own customs, political institutions, and ethnic identity.

Early Inhabitants: Solymi and Milyae

The earliest known inhabitants of Lycia were the Solymoi or Solymi, also referred to as the Solymians. They are mentioned in early Greek literary traditions and are often associated with the mountainous interior of the region. Their precise origins remain uncertain, though they are generally considered to represent a pre-Indo-European or early Anatolian population.
In later prehistoric times, another group known as the Milyae or Milyans migrated into the area. They spoke an Anatolian Indo-European language, commonly referred to as the Milyan language, and the territory they occupied became known as Milyas. Linguistic evidence suggests that the Milyans were culturally and ethnically distinct from the Solymi, though interaction between the two groups was likely.

The Termilae and Cretan Connections

According to Herodotus, Milyas was later settled by a people originating from Crete, whose endonym was trmmili. Greek sources rendered this name as Termilae. Under the leadership of Sarpedon, the Termilae were said to have been expelled from Crete by Minos and subsequently settled along the Lycian coast.
Over time, the Milyae became increasingly concentrated in the mountainous interior, while the Termilae developed as a maritime people with strong seafaring traditions. The territory occupied by the Termilae came to be known as trmmis, which Greek authors later rendered as Lykia, and the Romans as Lycia. Despite these exonyms, trmmili remained the indigenous self-designation for the people.

Mythological Explanations and Greek Naming

Greek mythology provided additional explanations for the name Lycia. One prominent tradition held that an Athenian aristocrat named Lycus, son of Pandion, settled in the region after being exiled from Athens. According to this account, the land and its inhabitants were named after him, becoming known to the Greeks as Lukia and later Lykia, while the people were called Lukiae or Lykiae, and in Latin Lyciani.
These mythological narratives reflect Greek attempts to integrate Lycia into a familiar Hellenic framework, even as indigenous traditions persisted beneath the surface.

Hellenisation and Language Change

From the fifth to fourth centuries BCE, Lycia experienced increasing Hellenisation. Greek political influence, trade, and cultural practices became more prominent, particularly in coastal cities. Although the Lycian language, itself an Anatolian Indo-European tongue written in a unique alphabet, continued to be used for several centuries, it gradually declined. By around 200 BCE, Lycian had become extinct and was fully replaced by Ancient Greek in public and private life.

Political History and Classical Accounts

During the Classical period, Lycia was organised as a collection of city-states, some of which participated in the Lycian League, a federal system later admired by Roman political thinkers. Photios I of Constantinople, quoting Theopompus, records that the Lycians under their king Pericles fought against Telmessos, eventually forcing negotiations after besieging the city.
Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, Lycia came under Macedonian control. Nearchus, one of Alexander’s admirals, was appointed viceroy of Lycia and neighbouring territories as far as Mount Taurus, marking the region’s integration into the wider Hellenistic world.

Scholarly Debates on Lycian Origins

Later classical authors offered divergent and sometimes contradictory accounts of Lycian origins. Strabo distinguished between the Lycians associated with Troy and the Termilae described by Herodotus, expressing scepticism about whether they represented distinct peoples or branches of the same tribe. He also connected the settlement of Lycia with Cretan movements involving the Carians and Leleges, further complicating the ethnic picture.
In contrast, Cicero stated unequivocally that the Lycians were a Greek tribe, a claim modern scholars generally regard as an oversimplification reflecting later Hellenic dominance rather than early ethnic reality.

Culture and Social Customs

According to Herodotus, Lycian culture represented a hybrid of Cretan and Carian influences. One of the most notable Lycian customs was matrilineal descent. Lycian men identified themselves by their mother’s name and lineage rather than their father’s, a practice highly unusual in the ancient Mediterranean world. This has often been interpreted as evidence that Lycian society was matrilineal or at least placed exceptional emphasis on female ancestry.

Religion and the Cult of Apollo

Lycia held a prominent place in Greek religious tradition, particularly in relation to the god Apollo, who was frequently styled Lycian, Delian, and Pythian. Literary sources including the Homeric Hymns, Bacchylides, Pindar, and Aristophanes all refer to Apollo as lord or god of Lycia. Ancient writers such as Semos of Delos recorded competing traditions regarding Apollo’s birthplace, with Lycia often named among the possibilities.
The geographer Pausanias described sacred objects at Patara, including a bronze bowl dedicated to Apollo and attributed to Hephaestus, and credited the Lycian poet Olen with composing some of the oldest Greek hymns. Later authors such as Clement of Alexandria and Solinus further attested to the region’s religious significance.

Archaeology and Material Culture

Modern archaeological understanding of Lycia owes much to the work of Pierre Demargne and Henri Metzger, who conducted extensive excavations at Xanthos between 1950 and 1959. Their work focused particularly on the Lycian acropolis, identified as the early citadel of the city and surrounded by monumental tombs.
The discovery of Geometric pottery dated to the eighth century BCE provided the earliest clear material evidence of settlement in Lycia. Archaeologist J. M. Cook concluded that this represented the earliest known stratum of Lycian material culture, raising questions about earlier habitation. The apparent absence of prehistoric remains has led some scholars to propose that the Lycians were originally nomadic settlers whose early presence left little archaeological trace.