Kabul

Kabul is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan, situated in the eastern part of the country within the Kabul Province. As the nation’s political, economic, and cultural centre, it has long served as a focal point for administration and trade. A projected 2025 estimate places its population at approximately 7.175 million, making it a significant primate city and one of the largest urban centres in the wider region. Rapid urbanisation over recent decades has reshaped the city, intensifying its role as a hub of commerce, migration, and national identity.

Geography and Urban Structure

Modern Kabul lies in a narrow high-altitude valley within the Hindu Kush mountain range and is crossed by the Kabul River. At its elevation it ranks among the world’s highest capital cities. The historic core includes neighbourhoods such as Khashti Bridge, Khabgah, Kahforoshi, Saraji, Chandavel, Shorbazar, Deh-Afghanan, and Ghaderdiwane. Kabul’s location at the junction of trade routes linking Central and South Asia has shaped its development for millennia; it occupies a midpoint between the eastern Mediterranean and the far reaches of Southeast Asia.

Toponymy and Etymology

The name Kabul has been recorded in numerous forms throughout antiquity. Its earliest meaning remains uncertain, though it appears to have pre-Islamic origins. Sanskrit texts refer to the settlement as Kubha, and Greek authors rendered the river and region as Kophen, Kophes, or Koa. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang recorded the name as Koafu in the seventh century CE. Initially applied to the Kabul River, the name was later extended to the adjoining region, also known historically as Kabulistan.
Scholars of the nineteenth century proposed connections between the name and ancient tribal groups including the Yuezhi or Tukhari, who may have settled in the valley in the second century BCE. Other traditions link the name to the Pahlavi form Kapul, meaning “royal bridge,” a reference to a principal crossing over the Kabul River. Additional legendary explanations exist, though linguistic evidence favours a long-standing regional designation that evolved through multilingual contact over time.

Early History and Antiquity

Archaeological and textual evidence suggests that Kabul is more than 3,500 years old. It appears in early Indo-Iranian compositions such as the Rigveda (c. 2000–1500 BC) and the Avesta, which reference the Kabul River and a settlement known as Kubha. The valley was incorporated into the Median Empire in the seventh century BC and subsequently entered the Achaemenid Empire after its conquest by Cyrus the Great in 549 BC. Under Achaemenid rule, it emerged as a centre of learning for Zoroastrianism and later supported Buddhist and Hindu traditions.
Following Alexander the Great’s annexation of the Persian Empire, the Kabul region passed under the Seleucid Empire and came into contact with the Mauryan state in India. During the Mauryan period, standardised administration and irrigation projects supported agricultural and commercial growth. Later, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom expanded its control to the area, followed by the Indo-Greek Kingdom, which fostered the spread of Buddhism. Subsequent rulers, including the Indo-Scythians and the Kushan Empire, shaped Kabul’s cultural and economic character; the Kushans, related to the Yuezhi, maintained control until the third century AD.
From the third to fifth centuries, the region experienced rule by the Sassanid Persians, the Indo-Sassanids, the Kidarites, and finally the Hephthalites. During this period Kabul appears in Pahlavi script as Kapul, and urban life continued to reflect diverse religious and linguistic influences. By the late sixth and early seventh centuries the surviving Turkic Turk Shahis and later the Hindu Shahis governed the region around Kapisa and Kabul, further contributing to its multicultural heritage.

Medieval and Early Modern Empires

Kabul’s strategic location ensured its incorporation into the succession of empires that dominated Central and South Asia. It was ruled at various times by the Samanids, the Khwarazmians, the Mongol Empire, and the Timurids. Genghis Khan’s campaigns in the thirteenth century destroyed several major cities in the region, elevating Kabul’s relative importance. Under the Mughal Empire, Kabul served as a summer capital in the sixteenth century and flourished as a military and administrative base. This era brought architectural patronage, expanded gardens, and enhanced urban prestige.
In the mid-eighteenth century, Kabul passed briefly under Afsharid authority before being incorporated into the newly established Durrani Empire in 1747. During the reign of Timur Shah Durrani, Kabul was designated the capital of Afghanistan in 1776, cementing its political centrality.

Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

The nineteenth century brought increasing engagement with European powers, particularly Britain. Kabul was occupied during episodes of the Anglo-Afghan conflicts, though Afghan sovereignty was ultimately restored as international borders were negotiated. Despite war and intermittent instability, Kabul remained the seat of government and a cultural nexus.
During the mid-twentieth century the city experienced relative tranquillity and urban expansion. It became a popular destination for travellers on the “hippie trail,” earning the nickname “Paris of Central Asia” for its cosmopolitan atmosphere, intellectual life, and scenic environment. New infrastructure, educational institutions, and public gardens, such as the Gardens of Babur, added to its appeal.
This stability ended with the Saur Revolution of 1978 and the subsequent Soviet intervention of 1979, initiating a decade-long conflict. Kabul suffered extensive damage during the civil war of the 1990s, particularly during battles between rival mujahideen factions. The Taliban captured the city in 1996; their rule was ended in 2001 following international intervention. In 2021 Kabul again changed hands, marking another major transition in the city’s modern political history.

Cultural Significance and Urban Life

Kabul has long been recognised for its bazaars, gardens, and palatial complexes, including the Darul Aman Palace and the Arg. Its position at a cultural crossroads fostered a blend of Persian, Turkic, Indo-Aryan, and Mongol influences, reflected in art, architecture, and urban layout. The city’s neighbourhoods maintain layers of historical identity, while its expanding population incorporates diverse ethnic groups from across Afghanistan.
As Afghanistan’s principal centre of education, media, and commerce, Kabul continues to play a defining role in national life. Its complex history—marked by imperial legacies, cultural exchange, conflict, and resilience—underscores its status as one of Asia’s oldest and most strategically situated cities.