Jihad

Jihad is an Arabic term meaning striving, exerting, or struggling, especially for a praiseworthy or noble aim. Within Islamic tradition, it encompasses a broad range of moral, spiritual, intellectual, and physical efforts aimed at upholding and advancing the guidance of God. While the concept is often associated with warfare in popular discourse, classical and modern Islamic scholarship emphasises its multi-dimensional character, which includes inner spiritual discipline, social responsibility, and, in certain contexts, armed defence.

Meaning, Scope, and Conceptual Dimensions

Derived from the Arabic root jahada, meaning “to exert effort”, the term jihad refers to striving with full force to accomplish a task. Within the religious context, this can include resisting immoral impulses, promoting ethical behaviour, supporting the community, defending the faith, and, in specific circumstances, engaging in armed conflict. Islamic jurisprudence classifies jihad broadly into inner (greater) jihad and outer (lesser) jihad.
The greater jihad refers to an inward moral and spiritual struggle. This concept is emphasised particularly in Sufi and other pious traditions, which view self-discipline, overcoming ego-driven desires, and nurturing virtuous conduct as fundamental expressions of jihad. The notion aligns with the idea of striving to live in accordance with divine guidance.
The lesser jihad refers to outward efforts, which can be subdivided into:

• Jihad of the tongue or pen, involving persuasion, teaching, and intellectual engagement;
• Jihad of the sword, involving armed conflict under specific regulated conditions.

Modern interpretations within the Muslim world vary widely. Surveys have shown a spectrum of views ranging from spiritualised and pacifist understandings to interpretations connected with political resistance or military action. Many Muslims consider inner jihad to hold primacy, whereas some Western scholarship argues that classical Islamic discourse frequently linked jihad with military struggle.

Scriptural Basis in the Qur’an

The Qur’an contains multiple references to jihad, both as a noun and as a verb, framing it as striving “in the path of God”. These references range from spiritual exhortations to passages addressing armed resistance. Scholars note variations between verses revealed in Meccan and Medinan periods, with Meccan texts predominantly emphasising belief and moral perseverance, while Medinan passages more often refer to physical struggle or defence.
Qur’anic discussions of warfare specify strict conditions. War is justified principally as self-defence or in response to aggression against Muslims. Classical interpretation placed restrictions on combat, forbidding harm to non-combatants, destruction of crops or property without necessity, and cruelty towards animals such as horses. Certain verses, including the so-called “Sword Verse”, became points of debate among later interpreters, some viewing them as context-bound, others giving them broader jurisprudential significance during the early expansion of Islamic territories.

Jihad in the Hadith Literature

Hadith collections contain extensive material on jihad, often categorised under kitāb al-jihād (“book of jihad”). Many narrations emphasise military engagement, reflecting a period during which the early Muslim community faced threats and warfare. Statements attributed to the Prophet Muhammad highlight the virtues associated with righteous participation in battle, including steadfastness, sacrifice, and purity of intention.
Certain hadiths describe martyrdom in combat as a means to Paradise, stressing the importance of sincerity and non-material motivation. Others present jihad more broadly, recognising acts such as supporting one’s parents, performing the pilgrimage properly, and fulfilling duties to family and society as forms of jihad. Islamic scholarship has long debated the relative emphasis on physical versus spiritual struggle found in the hadith corpus.

Development of Islamic Military Jurisprudence

Classical Islamic law developed a detailed framework governing armed jihad, incorporating restrictions, ethical imperatives, and rules for conduct in war. Muslim jurists distinguished between defensive warfare, which was universally accepted, and offensive warfare, which depended on specific doctrinal interpretations. Over time, separate legal categories emerged elaborating on permissible and prohibited conduct, treatment of civilians, distribution of resources, and the intentions required of participants.
By the twentieth century, the jurisprudential primacy of jihad as a technical legal term diminished, giving way to broader political and ideological interpretations. Reformist currents in Islamic modernism frequently highlighted the defensive, ethical, and non-violent aspects of jihad, whereas certain Islamist movements employed the concept to frame political struggles or militant agendas, often diverging from earlier jurisprudential norms.

Etymology and Interpretive Traditions

In linguistic terms, jihad signifies exertion or sustained effort. Early Islamic texts and later scholarly traditions used the word flexibly:

• In fiqh (jurisprudence), the term often denoted regulated military engagement;
• In Sufism, it commonly referred to inner purification and struggle against the lower self (nafs al-ammāra);
• In broader cultural usage across Arabic-speaking societies, the word may simply signify a “struggle” or “campaign”, religious or secular, and appears frequently in personal names.

Lexicographical works, including the Hans Wehr Dictionary, record definitions encompassing fighting or battling as a religious duty. Yet, in contemporary usage, the term can apply to social causes, reform efforts, or moral improvement, much like the broader English term “crusade”.

Jihad in Classical and Modern Thought

Classical Islamic scholarship developed extensive treatises on jihad, often focusing on warfare due to the challenges faced by early Muslim communities. Nonetheless, non-violent forms of jihad remained integral, particularly for Muslims who could not participate in distant military expeditions. Over centuries, interpretations shifted according to historical conditions, political realities, and doctrinal schools.
In modern times, debates concerning jihad have intensified. Reformist thinkers advocate readings that foreground ethical striving, welfare, and communal reform, emphasising peace and coexistence. Conversely, militant or radical interpretations by certain groups prioritise confrontational or expansionist readings that diverge from mainstream classical positions.
The distinction between greater and lesser jihad became an influential motif in various theological currents, underscoring the belief that inner spiritual development forms the foundation for external actions. This distinction has been widely disseminated, particularly in Sufi literature and contemporary interfaith discussions.

Contemporary Significance

Jihad continues to be a central concept within Islamic discourse, shaping ethical reflection, spiritual practice, and debates about political responsibility. While armed jihad remains a subject of legal and historical study, most modern Muslim scholarship and communal teaching emphasises its spiritual, moral, and societal dimensions. Discussions frequently focus on issues such as self-improvement, education, social reform, and resisting injustice through peaceful means.
At the same time, the term retains political resonance, especially in contexts marked by conflict or ideological mobilisation. Its interpretation therefore varies greatly across global Muslim communities, influenced by cultural context, educational background, and regional experiences.