Irrigation in India

Irrigation in India plays a crucial role in the country’s agricultural economy, supporting nearly half of the total cultivated area and ensuring food security for a population exceeding 1.4 billion. Since agriculture is largely dependent on the monsoon, which is erratic and unevenly distributed, irrigation has become indispensable for stabilising production, increasing crop yields, and promoting rural development. The evolution of irrigation in India reflects a blend of traditional practices and modern engineering, shaped by geographical diversity, climatic conditions, and state policies.

Importance of Irrigation

Agriculture in India remains the primary livelihood for a significant portion of the population, yet it is highly vulnerable to monsoon variability. Irrigation provides a dependable water supply that enables multiple cropping, enhances productivity, and mitigates drought impacts. Its importance can be summarised as follows:

• Stabilisation of Agriculture: Reduces dependency on uncertain rainfall, ensuring consistent production.
• Increase in Crop Yield: Irrigated land generally produces higher and more reliable yields than rain-fed land.
• Facilitation of Multiple Cropping: Enables farmers to grow more than one crop per year on the same field.
• Promotion of High-Yielding Varieties: Supports intensive cultivation required by high-yielding and cash crops.
• Economic Development: Contributes to rural employment, industrial raw material supply, and overall economic stability.

Historical Background

Irrigation in India has ancient roots, with references found in Vedic texts and Mauryan-era records describing tanks, wells, and canals. The Grand Anicut (Kallanai) built across the Cauvery River in Tamil Nadu around the 2nd century CE by King Karikala Chola is one of the oldest irrigation structures still in use.
During the medieval period, local rulers and communities constructed tanks and stepwells across southern and western India. Under British rule, large-scale canal systems such as the Upper Ganga Canal (1854) and the Bari Doab Canal (1859) were developed to boost agricultural productivity and control floods.
Post-independence, irrigation became a central component of India’s Five-Year Plans, focusing on large multipurpose projects such as Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley, Hirakud, Nagarjuna Sagar, and Tungabhadra.

Sources and Methods of Irrigation

India’s irrigation system draws from a variety of sources—surface water, groundwater, and non-conventional means—depending on regional geography and climate.

1. Canal Irrigation:
   • Water is diverted from rivers through networks of distributaries and channels.
   • Most prevalent in northern plains (Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal) due to flat terrain and perennial rivers.
   • Examples include the Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan) and Upper Ganga Canal.
2. Well and Tube-Well Irrigation:
   • Involves extracting groundwater using wells or mechanised tube wells.
   • Common in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu.
   • Highly flexible and suitable for small landholdings but dependent on groundwater availability.
3. Tank Irrigation:
   • Water is stored in artificial tanks or natural depressions for irrigation.
   • Common in peninsular India, particularly in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana, where terrain and rainfall patterns support tank construction.
4. Lift Irrigation:
   • Water is lifted from rivers, canals, or wells using pumps and distributed to higher areas.
   • Widely used in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka.
5. Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation:
   • Sprinkler systems distribute water under pressure to simulate rainfall, while drip irrigation delivers water directly to plant roots through pipes.
   • These methods are highly efficient, reducing water wastage and improving productivity in arid regions.
   • Prominent in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu.
6. Inundation Canals and Flood Irrigation:
   • Inundation canals draw water from rivers during the flood season.
   • Practised traditionally in floodplains of the Ganga and Brahmaputra but are now being replaced by controlled systems.

Major Irrigation Projects in India

India’s irrigation infrastructure is dominated by large multipurpose projects that also serve flood control, power generation, and navigation functions. Some of the most significant include:

• Bhakra Nangal Project – Sutlej River (Punjab–Himachal Pradesh): Provides irrigation to Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
• Damodar Valley Project – Jharkhand–West Bengal: Modelled on the Tennessee Valley Authority (USA).
• Hirakud Dam – Mahanadi River (Odisha): Controls floods and irrigates vast areas.
• Tungabhadra Project – Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka: Provides irrigation and hydropower.
• Nagarjuna Sagar – Krishna River (Andhra Pradesh–Telangana): One of the world’s largest masonry dams.
• Indira Gandhi Canal – Transforms parts of Rajasthan’s Thar Desert into arable land.
• Sardar Sarovar Project – Narmada River (Gujarat): Provides irrigation, hydropower, and drinking water.

These projects represent India’s vision of using water resources for comprehensive national development.

Geographic Distribution of Irrigation

• Northern Plains: Extensive canal and tube-well networks due to abundant rivers and fertile alluvium.
• Peninsular Plateau: Dominated by tanks and wells, as rivers are seasonal and terrain is uneven.
• Western India: Use of canal and drip irrigation to combat arid conditions, especially in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• Eastern India: Increasing use of groundwater irrigation in Bihar and West Bengal, supported by high rainfall and alluvial soil.
• Southern States: Heavy reliance on tank and well irrigation, supplemented by modern micro-irrigation systems.

Government Initiatives and Programmes

India has undertaken several programmes and policies to improve irrigation efficiency, ensure equitable water distribution, and promote sustainable resource management:

• Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP) – 1996: Provided financial support for completing major and medium irrigation projects.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) – 2015: Aims at “Har Khet Ko Pani” (water for every field) and “More Crop per Drop” through efficient water use and micro-irrigation.
• Command Area Development Programme: Focuses on improving water distribution within irrigated areas.
• National Water Mission: Ensures conservation and efficient management of water resources.
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (2019): Focused on community-based groundwater management.

Problems and Challenges

Despite extensive irrigation development, India faces multiple challenges in maintaining and managing its water resources:

• Over-Exploitation of Groundwater: Excessive tube-well irrigation has led to declining water tables in Punjab, Haryana, and Gujarat.
• Inefficient Water Use: Traditional flood irrigation causes wastage and salinity.
• Unequal Regional Distribution: Northern India is better irrigated than eastern and central regions.
• Siltation and Maintenance Issues: Many canal systems suffer from poor upkeep, reducing efficiency.
• Waterlogging and Salinity: Over-irrigation in some regions has damaged soil productivity.
• Climatic and Environmental Concerns: Climate change impacts rainfall patterns and water availability.

Recent Trends and Technological Developments

The focus in recent years has shifted from merely expanding irrigated area to improving irrigation efficiency and water-use sustainability:

• Adoption of micro-irrigation systems (drip and sprinkler) to reduce wastage.
• Promotion of precision agriculture and smart irrigation technologies.
• Emphasis on watershed development and rainwater harvesting in drought-prone regions.
• Integration of remote sensing and GIS for water resource management.
• Encouragement of participatory irrigation management (PIM) involving farmers’ associations in distribution and maintenance.