International Seabed Authority

The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is an intergovernmental organisation headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica, responsible for administering mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond national jurisdiction. Established under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the associated 1994 Implementation Agreement, the Authority functions within a legal framework that recognises the deep seabed—referred to as the Area—and its resources as the common heritage of humankind. The ISA therefore balances two core objectives: enabling exploration and potential exploitation of seabed minerals, and protecting the fragile marine environment of the deep ocean.

Background and Establishment

The Authority convened its inaugural meeting on 16 November 1994, coinciding with the entry into force of UNCLOS. Its mandate reflected the post-Cold War shift towards a more market-oriented international environment, while maintaining obligations for equitable sharing of benefits derived from seabed resources. The ISA became a recognised observer of the United Nations General Assembly in 1996 and now comprises 167 member states alongside the European Union.
The framework underpinning the Authority derives from Part XI of UNCLOS, which outlines the principles governing mineral resources in the Area. These include peaceful use, benefit to all humanity, and special consideration for developing countries. Member states fund the Authority’s activities, supplemented by fees from entities holding seabed exploration contracts.

Jurisdiction and the International Seabed

The Area covers the seabed, ocean floor, and subsoil beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. UNCLOS defines national maritime zones as a 12-nautical-mile territorial sea, a 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone, and a continental shelf which states may extend if they can demonstrate natural prolongation. Determining outer continental shelf boundaries is the responsibility of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf rather than the ISA.
The ISA’s jurisdiction covers vast deep-ocean regions—typically waters below 200 metres where sunlight penetration is minimal. Approximately half of the world’s total ocean area falls within this category, making the Authority a key player in the governance of global marine biodiversity.

Exploration Contracts and Mineral Resources

Since the mid-1990s the ISA has issued over two dozen exploration contracts to states, public entities, and private corporations. Most activity is concentrated in the Clarion–Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the central Pacific Ocean, a region rich in polymetallic nodules containing cobalt, nickel, copper, and other minerals of increasing strategic interest due to their use in renewable energy technologies and electric vehicle batteries.
Other exploration zones include parts of the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific. Contractors undertake environmental baseline studies, resource assessments, and technological research under close monitoring by the Authority’s technical bodies.
To date no commercial mining operations have been authorised. Ongoing debates concern the development of a comprehensive Mining Code, intended to regulate commercial-scale extraction and ensure environmental protection. Global environmental organisations, scientists, and several states have called for a moratorium, citing concerns about irreversible ecosystem damage in the deep sea—an important carbon sink hosting rare and poorly understood species.

Governance Structure

The Authority consists of an Assembly, a Council, a Secretariat, and specialised advisory bodies.

• Assembly: The plenary body in which each member state is represented. It elects the Council’s 36 members, approves the annual budget, and adopts rules and regulations governing seabed mining. It also elects the Secretary-General from candidates recommended by the Council.
• Council: Composed of 36 states elected on a representative basis, the Council formulates detailed seabed mining policies, approves contracts for exploration and exploitation, and drafts regulations subject to Assembly approval. It also nominates candidates for Secretary-General.
• Secretary-General: Serving a four-year term, the Secretary-General leads the Secretariat, prepares the annual report, and manages day-to-day administration. Officeholders are prohibited from holding any financial interest in seabed mining. The current Secretary-General is Leticia Carvalho, whose term commenced on 1 January 2025.
• Secretariat: A professional administrative body with authorised posts for 37 staff members and a biennial budget in the region of 10 million USD.

Advisory Bodies

Specialised committees support the Council’s technical and financial oversight:

• Legal and Technical Commission (LTC): Comprising 30 experts nominated by governments, the LTC examines applications for exploration and exploitation, reviews environmental impact assessments, and advises on scientific and regulatory matters.
• Finance Committee: Comprising 15 experts serving in their personal capacity, the committee reviews budget proposals, financial arrangements for contractors, and mechanisms for benefit-sharing.

The Enterprise

UNCLOS envisioned an operational arm known as the Enterprise, which would serve as the Authority’s own mining operator. The Enterprise, once fully active, would engage directly in mineral recovery, either independently or through joint ventures, with revenues supporting equitable distribution of financial benefits, particularly for developing nations. Although the Enterprise has not yet begun mining activities, discussions continue regarding its future role.

Environmental Considerations and Criticisms

The Authority’s mandate to regulate mining and protect the marine environment has generated significant debate. Environmental organisations, including Greenpeace, argue that the ISA faces an inherent conflict of interest as both regulator and potential mining operator. While the Authority rejects these allegations, concerns persist regarding transparency, ecosystem protection, and the adequacy of scientific data guiding regulatory decisions.
Scientific studies warn that deep-sea ecosystems are highly vulnerable, slow-recovering, and central to global biogeochemical cycles. As a result, the ISA’s deliberations on mining regulations attract considerable international scrutiny.

Commercial Mining Prospects and Regulatory Deadlines

By the early 2020s discussions intensified regarding the timeline for commercial mining. In 2021 Nauru invoked a clause that obliges the ISA to adopt final regulations within two years, potentially enabling mining to proceed under provisional rules if no consensus is reached. This placed pressure on the Authority to finalise a regulatory system balancing environmental and economic considerations.
Although commercial mining was once anticipated to begin as early as 2023–2024, regulatory deliberations, scientific concerns, and state-led calls for precaution have slowed progress. The Authority continues to work towards establishing a comprehensive framework before granting any exploitation licences.

Significance and Global Role

As custodian of the common heritage of humankind, the ISA plays a pivotal role in managing access to deep-sea resources while promoting sustainable development. Its work influences marine scientific research, global mineral supply chains, biodiversity conservation, and the evolving international legal order governing the oceans.
The Authority’s decisions in the coming years are expected to shape how—or whether—commercial deep-sea mining proceeds, with implications for environmental protection, global equity, and the future governance of international commons.